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Pigs, Peccaries and
Hippos Status Survey and Action Plan (1993) Chapter
5.11 Review of Priorities for
Conservation Action and Future Research on South and Southeast Asian Suids. Raleigh A.
Blouch and William L. R. Oliver Introduction Suid conservation in
South and Southeast Asia is especially complex because all seven species of Sus plus the three subspecies of Babyrousa are found here coexisting
and interacting with a wide array of human cultures. The various attitudes of
these local people towards wild pigs strongly influence the success of
conservation programs. At one extreme, some villagers despise wild pigs as
unclean animals to be shunned, or as agricultural pests competing with them
for food; whereas other cultures regard wild pigs as invaluable sources of
protein or as prized hunting trophies. Some such situations cause problems
for suid conservation, but others provide opportunities for biologists to
devise sustained yield management strategies designed to benefit local people
while conserving the wildlife. Although it is often
unwise to generalize about such a diverse group of taxa over such a large
region as South and Southeast Asia, it is safe to say that the creation and
proper management of protected areas is vital to the long term survival of
many of these animals. The continued survival of some of the less adaptable
species is directly related to the broader issue of conservation of habitats,
particularly tropical rain forests and tall grasslands. Indeed, for species
such as the pigmy hog complete protection both inside and outside of national
parks and wildlife reserves is the only management option open at present. On the other hand,
some taxa of wild pigs are adaptable and productive enough to support a level
of hunting, and in these cases there is a need to find out what those levels
are for each population and ensure that they are not exceeded. Currently,
such basic biological information as distribution, numbers, mortality rates
and fecundity is lacking for almost all populations. Clearly, ecological
research and estimation of current annual rates of harvest are needed for
many populations in order to devise effective management strategies. Trained
wildlife personnel to formulate and enforce the required regulations are also
a priority. Whilst certain
research and management recommendations pertaining to selected native and
introduced populations of Sus scrofa
elsewhere are identified in preceding chapters 5.2 and 5.10, this review is
confined to South and Southeast Asia because the overwhelming majority of
relevant taxa and all currently perceived conservation action priorities are
concentrated in these regions. Objectives 1. To
assess the distribution, status and management requirements of populations
which may be at risk due to habitat destruction or over-exploitation. 2. To
create and expand protected areas to include greater numbers of those taxa
which have restricted ranges or low populations. 3. To
implement management policies designed to conserve taxa at risk existing outside
protected areas. These would include modification of land use practices to
conserve vital habitats, and promotion of public awareness of the need for
suid conservation in particular and nature conservation in general. 4. To
develop sustained yield management systems for those populations which can
support harvesting. This would require initial monitoring, and eventual
regulation or elimination, of market hunting. 5. To
promote captive breeding of threatened taxa, as an insurance against possible
extinction, for research and public educational purposes, and as a potential
source of animals for reintroduction to the wild. 6. To
encourage ecological, behavioral, and genetic studies with a view to
increasing our understanding of the biology and interspecific relationships
of the wild suids. Conservation Action Priorities A. Conserve Taxa at Risk Those suid taxa
which have been included in status categories 4 (vulnerable), 5 (endangered)
or 6 (critically endangered) must receive priority for conservation action.
In addition, one species and two subspecies currently classified as status
category 3 (rare), and one species and several insular feral populations
categorized as 'indeterminate', are deserving of attention because so little
is known of their current status. Based on the information now available the
taxa most at risk are: ·
Sus
salvanius - status category 6 ·
S.
cebifrons - status category 5 ·
Babyrousa
babyrussa - status categories 4 and
5, according to ssp. ·
S.
scrofa riukiuanus - status categories 4 and
5, according to population ·
S.
verrucosus - status category 4 (both
subspecies) ·
S.
barbatus oi - status category 3 ·
S.
b. ahoenobarbus - status category 3 ·
S.
philippensis - status category 3 ·
S.
bucculentus - Indeterminate (extinct
?) ·
S.
scrofa (ancient feral pigs - Indeterminate. of the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands) Actions needed to
improve the conservation status of these taxa are summarized below : 1. Conduct
field surveys to determine the present distribution, status and threats to
the survival of S. salvanius, S. cebifrons, B. b. togeanensis, B. b.
babyrussa, S. s. riukiuanus, S. v. blouchi, the Madura population
of S. v. verrucosus, S. b. ahoenobarbus and S. b. oi. Recommend and (where
possible) assist the implementation of immediate management actions for
populations identified as being important for the survival of their
representative taxa. The ancient feral pig populations of the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands are also considered to merit high priority in this context. 2. Promote
and otherwise assist current proposals to create or expand effectively
protected areas containing existing populations (or areas suitable for the
reintroduction) of S. salvanius, S. cebifrons, S. s. riukiuanus, S.
verrucosus, S. barbatus, S. philippensis and B. babyrussa (see 'action plan'
recommendations for these taxa in preceding chapters 5.2 to 5.8 for details
of these areas). 3. Establish
properly structured captive breeding programs for S. salvanius, S. cebifrons,
S. s. riukiuanus, S. v. verrucosus
and S. v. blouchi, B. b. babyrussa and B. b. togeanensis, through the
acquisition of sufficient (>12) wild-caught founders, and the long-term,
collaborative management of these animals, preferably under common ownership,
through the participation of several, actively cooperating institutions. 4. Promote
and assist development of local conservation education projects to increase
awareness of the need for nature conservation in general and the conservation
of particular taxa, especially B.
babyrussa, S. cebifrons, S. s. riukiuanus, S. verrucosus, S. barbatus,
S. philippensis and the S. scrofa feral populations of the
Andaman and Nicobar islands. 5. Increase
law enforcement efforts with a view to eliminating the (currently) intense
hunting pressure on the few remaining populations of S. cebifrons, the poisoning of S. verrucosus, the continued payment of government bounties for
the killing of S. s. riukiuanus,
and commercial trade in the meat of the latter animals and of B. babyrussa. 6. Investigate
the possible continued existence of S.
bucculentus (known from only two skulls collected in southern Vietnam in
the 1890's) and assist development of management plans for the future
protection of any surviving populations. B. Encourage the Rational
Management of Healthy Suid Populations For healthy suid
populations which are at no immediate risk of extirpation, hunting on a
sustained yield basis is a viable management option. There are several
benefits to be derived from such hunting if it is properly controlled: 1. It
provides an inexpensive source of protein to local people. 2. It
allows villagers to exercise some control over crop-raiding pigs. 3. It
provides income for local people from sport hunters who spend money on
guides, food and lodging. 4. As
a valuable non-timber forest product, wild pigs can be an incentive to
conserve forests, rather than convert them. 5. It
provides recreational opportunities for city dwellers, land owners and
decision-makers, many of whom are sport hunters. Although wild pigs
of virtually all taxa are subject to varying degrees of hunting pressure, the
overwhelming majority of wildlife management authorities lack adequate
personnel, training or equipment to monitor and regulate the harvests
properly. This is not a major problem in those areas where suid populations
remain relatively abundant at current levels of exploitation, but excessive
hunting pressure is a definite threat to the existence of some taxa and
should be eliminated or much more rigorously controlled. A goal of local
wildlife authorities should be to determine which suid populations fall into
the latter category and to impose and enforce scientifically based hunting
regulations. The taxa having at
least some populations with potential to be managed for a sustainable harvest
include S. scrofa, S. barbatus, S. verrucosus, S.
philippensis, S. celebensis and
most, if not all introduced and feral populations of S. scrofa and/or S.
celebensis origin. Most of these taxa/populations are currently under
pressure from subsistence, sport and/or market hunting. Subsistence hunters
rely on wild pig meat as an important part of their diet and these are
usually the most numerous class of hunter. Sport hunting is mostly quite
limited, but market hunting is also common in some areas and poses a potentially
serious and growing threat to some populations. Although each
situation is different and demands its own management approach, priority
actions for the development of management programs for non-threatened suids
may be summarized as follows: 1. Initial
surveys must be conducted to identify pig populations which are subject to
significant hunting pressure and are which will require management to ensure
they maintain sustainable numbers. For
some taxa, such as S. b. barbatus, S. s. vittatus and S. s. leukomystax, S. v. verrucosus, S. celebensis and B. b.
celebensis, this work has begun, but little or no progress has made on
this for many other taxa, including S.
b. oi, S. b. ahoenobarbus, S. philippensis and most other Asian
subspecies of S. scrofa. 2. The
type(s) of hunting activity on each population should be investigated, since
this will determine future management policy and requirements. For
example, subsistence hunting is of primary importance with S. barbatus, S. cebifrons, S.
philippensis and many introduced and feral S. scrofa and S. celebensis
populations; market hunting is known to affect many populations of S. s. vittatus, S. v. verrucosus, S.
celebensis and B. b. celebensis;
and sport hunting is of primary importance to S. s. leucomystax and some populations of S. s. vittatus and S. v.
verrucosus. 3. Reliable
and easy-to-use methods must be devised to gather data on pig population
parameters, such as number, fecundity, and sex and age ratios. Whilst
these data may be difficult to obtain from observational studies of wild pigs
in their natural habitats, counts can be made of animals visiting waterholes
or saltlicks or, at night with spotlights, those feeding in agricultural
areas. Much invaluable data for an understanding of population dynamics may
also be gathered from hunter-killed animals, particularly those brought to
markets for sale, such as S. scrofa riukiuanus, S. celebensis and
B. b. celebensis. Whatever methods prove most successful will need to
be repeated at regular intervals to monitor the effectiveness of any
management strategies. 4. Monitor
the number of pigs killed annually. This
has been done in Sarawak for S. b. barbatus by indirect methods such as
determining the number of shotgun shells sold and the amount of wild pig meat
purchased at rural schools. Direct surveys of hunters and markets will also
prove useful in many cases. 5. Determine
the number of wild pigs to be taken annually, basing this on population data,
and establish an equitable method of distributing the hunting rights. A
system for the enforcement of these regulations will be necessary. Whatever
system is implemented will also need to take into consideration the
traditional ways in which the local people have exploited these pigs. For
example, a quota of permits may be issued to a village or longhouse rather
than to an individual hunter, and village headmen could be actively involved
in enforcement. In order for any system of control to work properly, it will
be essential that local people understand the need for sustainable management
practices. C. Personnel Training and
Conservation Education In most government
agencies involved with the management of parks and wildlife in South and
Southeast Asian countries, there is an evident need for more personnel trained
in protected area and wildlife management. In order to obtain basic data
necessary for the management of protected areas and wildlife populations,
wildlife officials need a proper understanding of wildlife biology and
ecology, as well as the ability to liaise effectively with local people and
deal with the visiting public. These skills can be obtained only by
facilitating their attendance at universities or academies, though relatively
few of these in the region have relevant curricula, and by their participation
in specialized training courses, preferably in situ. Various training
efforts have been developed in the region, but many more are required. Since
1986, the Smithsonian Institution in cooperation with the Malaysian
Department of Wildlife and National Parks has conducted 7-week wildlife
conservation training courses annually in Peninsular Malaysia, bringing
participants mainly from Southeast Asia, but also from Africa and Latin
America. The Gunung Batu Training Centre operated by the Indonesian Forestry
Department in cooperation with the Dutch Government has been providing
valuable wildlife training to rangers and middle management personnel from
Indonesia and other countries for several years. The Wildlife Institute of
India at Dehra Dun has initiated a wildlife biology curriculum with help from
the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. However,
obtaining funding for these training programs is a constant concern. Donor
organizations such as the international aid agencies of the developed
countries and the World Bank should be encouraged to provide such support and
to facilitate the development of similar programs elsewhere in the region. Environmental
education programs aimed at the general public also needs to be given much higher
priority by the relevant governmental and non-governmental agencies in the
region. In the Philippines, for example, there is an almost complete lack of
a conservation ethic or any understanding or appreciation of the natural
environment of the country amongst the general public, or even amongst even
to the most well-educated, land-owning and decision-making, classes - a
factor caused, at least in part, by the widespread use in schools of imported
text books. In this and many other South and Southeast countries,
conservation issues receive very low priority and there is as yet little
recognition, let alone popular support or pressure for improved environmental
protection measures. In the case of wild
suids, there are particular problems in promoting their conservation in
predominately Islamic countries or regions, and/or areas where wild pigs are
perceived mainly as agricultural pests, but these issues can be addressed
through conservation-education initiatives designed to allay prejudice and
promote awareness of their very positive role in other cultures and the
ecology of habitats to which they are native. Future Research Priorities Current knowledge of
the suid taxa of South and Southeast Asia is mostly limited to the results of
preliminary surveys conducted on some of the more obviously threatened
species. There is a great pressing need for more research on the biology of
all the taxa in order to obtain information necessary for the formulation of
practical management decisions. A major constraint is the lack of trained
local personnel to do this work. In addition, those scientists who are
interested in wildlife research are only rarely interested in wild pigs,
either because of cultural attitudes or because pigs lack the perceived
glamour of some of the better known Asian mammals. Commendably, western
scientists have recently begun longer-term research into the biology of some
of the wild Asian suids. However, a priority of these and any future studies
should be to involve and train local biologists and wildlife personnel and to
encourage them to conduct their own research projects on these animals. Far
more applied research, on a wide range of scientific disciplines, is required
as a matter of some urgency, and much of this research could and should be
conducted by local scientists and field officers. The highest priority areas
for such research include: 1. Field
studies of the behavior and ecology of the least-known species, such as S. salvanius, S. cebifrons, S. verrucosus, S. philippensis, S. celebensis
and B. babyrussa. Research into the
population movements and dynamics, group sizes, diet and habitat preferences,
and responses to hunting pressure and commercial logging, are especially
relevant in this regard. 2. Development
of techniques to give reliable indices or estimates of population sizes and
compositions, applicable to all species, in order to formulate appropriate
management strategies. 3. Study
of captive animals, particularly of the least known species, which would
complement field studies by providing information impractical to obtain from
wild animals. These should include the accumulation and analyses of routine
records data, as well as properly structured investigations into all aspects
of the species' life history, its social and reproductive behavior,
reproductive biology, nutritional physiology, pathology, etc. 4. Investigate
the ecological and genetic relationships between taxa occurring
sympatrically, namely: S. scrofa
cristata and the highly restricted S.
salvanius; S. scrofa vittatus and
the less abundant S. v. verrucosus
(Java) and S. b. oi (Sumatra and
Peninsular Malaysia), S. celebensis
and the less abundant B. babyrussa.
5. Conduct
zoological-anthropological surveys and studies wherever wild pigs (including
introduced and feral populations), and/or semi-domestic and domestic pigs,
are of prime importance to surviving tribal, particularly hunter-gatherer,
societies. These surveys/studies should investigate the socio-economic
importance of these animals to these people, and their cultural traditions
with respect to the hunting and husbanding of these animals. Priority for
such research includes the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Simeulue and Nias
Islands, the Moluccas, the Lesser Sunda Islands and New Guinea. 6. Further
systematic, particular cytogenetic studies to determine the affinities of the
various taxa, including feral and domesticated varieties, which may have been
transported far from their place of origin. Priorities include the wild and
ancient domestic pigs of the Philippines, Taiwan, Buru and the Sulu Is., the
Moluccas, the Lesser Sunda Islands, the Mentawi Islands, Nias and Simeulue,
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and Sri Lanka. |
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