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Pigs, Peccaries and
Hippos Status Survey and Action Plan (1993) Chapter 2.5 Economic Importance and Human Utilization of Peccaries Richard E. Bodmer, Lyle K. Sowls and Andrew B. Taber
Action Plan Summary Human exploitation of peccaries for meat and for
hides occurs throughout the ranges of the three living species. The most
widely hunted species is the collared peccary, Tayassu tajacu, which also has by far the largest range, yields
the most valuable hides and appears to be least susceptible to this pressure.
The white-lipped peccary, T. pecari,
is also exploited heavily for meat and hides, but is apparently more
vulnerable to this pressure because it has a much smaller range and because
it forms much larger social groups. By comparison, the Chacoan peccary, Catagonus wagneri, is hunted mostly
for its meat, but this species is already seriously threatened throughout its
very small range and is unlikely to withstand continued intense hunting
pressure. The large volume of international trade in peccary hides, coupled
with need to protect C. wagneri by
all possible means, have resulted in the recent (1986) inclusion of the
latter species on Appendix I of C.I.T.E.S and both species of Tayassu on
Appendix II. For all of these reasons, this section deals only
with the socio-economic issues relating to the continued use of the Tayassu peccaries for food by
subsistence and recreational hunters and the commercial sale of their meat
and hides. These peccaries constitute a major source of meat for many rural
and indigenous people in Central and South America, though they are hunted
mainly for sport by people from the higher socio-economic classes in these
regions and in the USA. Hunters from rural areas also commonly sell peccary
meat and hides in urban markets, and these may constitute a principal source
of revenue for those hunters and a major proportion of the total volume of
game meat sold. In the 1950's, 60's and 70's large numbers of commercial hide
hunters were also operating throughout South America, and although this
practice has become less prevalent since that time peccary hides are still an
important export in those South American countries - notably, Argentina,
Bolivia and Peru - which have maintained a legal skin trade. Action plan
recommendations are primarily directed towards the improved regulation of
peccary hunting to ensure the sustainable utilisation of these animals for
subsistence purposes, the prohibition of hunting for purely commercial
purposes, and the utilisation of profits from the marketing of peccary
products for the benefit of rural communities and the enhanced future
management of peccary populations. Introduction Human utilization of the peccaries is widespread
throughout the New World. Collared peccaries, Tayassu tajacu, are the most frequently exploited species and are
hunted throughout their range from southern North America through to northern
Argentina. White-lipped peccaries, Tayassu
pecari, are also hunted widely, but have a smaller geographical range and
are apparently more vulnerable to hunting pressure than collared peccaries;
perhaps because they form much larger social groups. One or both species of Tayassu are legally hunted in many
Central and South American countries and in the U.S.A., and are listed on
Appendix II of CITES, which permits international trade in their products so
long as harvests do not overexploit natural populations. The Chacoan peccary, Catagonus wagneri, has a much smaller geographical range and
population size than either Tayassu
spp. These factors, together with the former's strictly diurnal habits and
defensive strategy of standing its ground rather than fleeing, makes it much
more susceptible to hunting than the other peccaries (see earlier text,
Section 2.4). The Chacoan peccary is categorized as 'Vulnerable' in the IUCN
Red List of Threatened Animals (1990) and (since 1986) is included on
Appendix I of CITES. However, this species is now endangered and should not
be used by people for meat or hides and efforts should be made to curtail any
hunting, which is presently occurring. Therefore, the following discussion
will deal only with the socio-economic issues appertaining to the two Tayassu species and not the Chacoan
peccary. These issues relate to the use of these peccaries
for food by subsistence hunters and for commercial sale, the pelt trade for
national and international markets, and sport hunting. Data on sport hunting
is available only from the U.S.A., though recreational hunting is also
practiced widely amongst higher socio-economic groups in most Central and
South American countries. Various management options for the possible
enhanced future regulation of the peccary harvest are also discussed with a
view to the need to avoid the overexploitation of these animals. An 'action
plan' to manage peccary populations is outlined below. The Hunters Depending on locality, peccaries are hunted for
their meat and/or hides and for sport. In the U.S.A. they are hunted
predominantly for sport, whilst in Latin America they are hunted mostly for meat.
In the 1950's, 60's and early 70's large numbers of hide hunters were
operating throughout South America, but this practice became less prevalent
in the late 70's and 80's. However, peccaries are still being hunted at least
partly for their hides in Argentina, Paraguay and Bolivia. Sport hunting of collared peccaries in the U.S.A. is
permitted in Arizona, New Mexico and Texas. Arizona has adopted a permit
lottery system and a division of the State into hunting units. Winter surveys
by wildlife managers determine population trends and estimates, and set
permit quotas. Annual peccary harvests from 1950 to 1980 range between a low
of 1,344 in 1950 to a high in 1970 of 6,602 animals. During the 1970's,
Arizona sold an average of 24,991 hunting permits per year, recorded an
annual mean of 21,903 hunters afield and an average harvest of 4,795 animals.
The hunting season in Arizona is usually in late February or early March and
lasts for one to two weeks (Sowls, 1984). New Mexico has a similar system to
Arizona, but the peccary population in this State is confined to only a few,
isolated areas. In both Arizona and New Mexico peccaries are found
mostly on land owned by the government and where there is free access by
hunters. In Texas, where there are far more peccaries, hunting regulations
vary in different counties and most land is privately owned. Until a few
years ago the collared peccary was listed as vermin in this State, but it now
has game animal status. Ranchers sell permits for hunting peccaries on their
land. This has become a thriving business, particularly popular amongst
archers. During 1989, 18,477 collared peccaries were harvested in Texas. Subsistence hunters are common throughout Central
and South America, but are often difficult to classify because some sell
portions of game meat and hides for cash income. Local people commonly hunt
peccaries whilst collecting other minor forest products. For example, rubber
tappers in south-western Brazil, palm leaf (Chamaedorea spp.) cutters in Mexico, Guatemala and Belize, and
palm fruit collectors throughout the Amazon basin often hunt peccaries along
their trail systems. Professional meat hunters are also prevalent in some
countries and may cause considerable damage to peccary populations. However,
it is the commercial enterprises, such as lumber, oil and mining operations
that often result in the most severe hunting pressure, since their employees
frequently rely on game meat as a major source of food. For instance, in a
500 sq. km study site in the Peruvian Amazon, persons employed in small
lumber operations were also responsible for more than 50% of the 148
peccaries harvested in 1985 (Bodmer et
al., 1988). In some countries, such as Guatemala, Nicaragua and Colombia,
soldiers and guerrillas often hunt both species of Tayassu for meat. Peccary Meat and the Meat Trade Peccaries constitute a major source of meat for many
rural and indigenous people in Central and South America, and they are often
the most important animals hunted in both frequency and harvested biomass
(Vickers, 1984; Redford & Robinson, 1987). Indeed, its importance to many
of the Amerindian groups has resulted in their adopting the peccary as a
ceremonial animal (Donkin, 1985). In Brazil, For example, headhunting by the
Munduruc Indians revolved around the "mother of the peccary" and
their warfare with neighboring tribes may have been a mechanism to increase
peccary densities by eliminating hunting competitors (Durham, in press). Peccaries also provide a substantial quantity of
meat. Collared peccaries have a total body weight of 15-28kg and yield a
dressed weight of 10-12kg of meat, and white-lipped peccaries a total body
weight of 24-40kg and a dressed weight of 12-18kg (Sowls, 1984). Most
subsistence hunters in Central and South America also consume the brain,
tongue, lungs, heart, kidneys and liver, which, together with the flesh,
represents about 60% of the total body weight. Hunters throughout Central and South America
commonly sell peccary meat in urban markets. In the public markets of Iquitos
in Peru, 60.2% of the total volume of game meet sold between May 1986 and
April 1987 was from ungulates, of which 64.8% were collared peccaries (1,211
individuals) and 19.5% were white-lipped peccaries (261 individuals)
(Bendayán, 1990). In Iquitos, a single collared peccary can fetch between
20-30 US dollars, so this trade may constitute a major source of revenue to
hunters supplying these markets. In Argentina and Paraguay, peccary meat is
of far less value, because beef is readily available and inexpensive, but
peccaries are still widely hunted for the hide trade. The Peccary Hide Trade Peccary hides constitute an important export in
those South American countries, such as Argentina, Bolivia and Peru (Fig. 4),
which have maintained a legal skin trade. Traditionally, the (former) Federal
Republic of Germany was the primary importer of peccary hides, which are used
mostly for equestrian leathers, especially gloves. The use of these hides for
this purpose, as opposed to more popular but ephemeral fashion accessories,
has produced a relatively stable market. Germany still dominates this market,
but various other countries, such as the U.S.A. and Italy, have imported
increased numbers of hides in recent years. Of the 362,745 hides exported from
Argentina in 1988 and 1989, for example, 48% were exported to West Germany,
26% to the U.S.A., 16% to Italy, 3.2% to Japan, 2.4% to the Netherlands and
4% to other European countries (J. Cajal, pers. comm.). In principle, the commercial hunting of peccaries
for their hides is prohibited in these and other South American countries. In
practice, however, until at least 1990 commercial hide hunting was still
common in Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay, where peccary hides fetched
relatively high prices and the trade was still profitable. In 1989, raw
white-lipped peccary hides fetched about $5 U.S. each, and collared peccary
hides fetched as much as $8 U.S. each; the latter being exceeded in value
only by caiman hides. Conversely, there are now far fewer commercial hunters
in those countries where peccary hides attract much lower prices. In Peru,
for example, peccary hides are currently (1990) fetching only c. US$1.5-2.5
per hide, which evidently deters purely commercial hunting. The total number of peccary hides exported from
South America has been relatively constant over the past 3 decades. However,
the major exporting country has switched from Peru to Argentina in recent
years. In Peru, hunters obtained a relatively good income from peccary hides
in the 1950's, 60's and early 70's, when exports from the Peruvian Amazon
alone exceeded 200,000 hides/year (Grimwood, 1969). During the 16-year period
from 1970 to 1985 (incl.), a total of 1,164,781 collared peccary hides and
577,880 white-lipped peccary hides were exported from Peru alone. However,
even these figures were exceeded on occasions by Brazil, which exported as
many as 479,941 collared peccary hides and 216,575 white-lipped peccary hides
in 1969, though this large number may be partly accounted for by the ban on
further exports from this country which came into effect the following year.
Since the early 1970's, the hide trade has become both less lucrative for
hunters and more strictly controlled, and exports have declined to the
current level of around 50,000 skins/year (Bodmer, et al., 1988). In Argentina, an average of 32,251 peccary hides
were exported annually between 1976 and 1984 (R. Ojeda, pers. comm.), but
this increased to an annual export of 181,373 during 1988 and 1989 (J. Cajal,
pers. comm.); thereby compensating for the decrease in the Peruvian export.
In 1988, the number of peccary hides exported from Argentina constituted
64.3% of the market, whilst Peru and Bolivia exported 29.6% and 6.0%,
respectively (CITES, Data Base; Fig. 4). However, although large numbers of
hides were exported from Argentina it is that likely that more than half of
these actually originated from Bolivia and Paraguay. Link to Fig. 4:
Recorded numbers of T. tajacu and T. pecari hides exported from South America
during the period 1946 to 1990 (incl.). The Economics of the Peccary Harvest The peccary hide trade is a profitable market to the
major exporting countries in South America, as well as the major importing
nations of Germany, U.S.A. and Italy. During 1988, for example, (West)
Germany alone imported 5,071 white-lipped peccary hides from Peru and
Bolivia, and 160,391 collared peccary hides from Argentina, Bolivia and Peru
(CITES Data Base). The total value of this trade was approximately US$30
million of which about US$ 1 million was received by rural hunters, US$1.5
million was garnered by intermediaries in South America, and the rest
remained in the German economy (calculated from data in Bodmer et al., 1990). Little if any of these
profits is recycled back into peccary management in South America. As a
result, the peccary hide market lacks necessary management information on its
primary resource and is thus susceptible to unpredictable collapse. This
contrasts with sport hunting of collared peccaries in the USA where hunting
permits generate substantial income for management. In Arizona, for instance,
the price for a collared peccary hunting permit in 1990 ranged between
US$14.50 to US$92.50, with a total of 13,400 permits being available for
sale. Nonetheless, the peccary harvest in Peru is an
example of how an animal, if well managed, can bring economic benefits to
local people, urban markets, and the national and international trade. The
economics of peccary hunting in Peru is unique in the sense that it is
operating on two levels - hunters and meat, and exports and hides. The number
of peccaries hunted is determined by the value of meat either as a source of
income or food, and not by the hides. Indeed, many rural hunters treat hides
as a minor by-product. However, hides are of much greater economic value for
the national economy and international trade, because they bring foreign
currency to this developing country. This economic situation is intriguing
because its stability depends on a food resource, while its profits are made
from the hides. The peccary harvest in Paraguay and Argentina,
unlike that of Peru, has become less stable in recent years, because of
increases in the numbers of peccaries hunted. This was undoubtedly a
consequence of higher prices being paid for pelts, which encouraged
commercial hunting, as the value of the meat appears to have little influence
on the size of the peccary harvest in these countries. However, in 1990 the
market for peccary skins in Argentina, the main transit point for hides
exported from Bolivia and Paraguay, was closed. Since then the commercial
hide harvest in these three countries seems to have declined, though it is
not clear how long this control will remain effective. The Management of Peccary Hunting At present, the majority of Central and South
American countries attempt to manage peccary populations by only permitting
subsistence hunting (Broad, 1984). In principle, this is a good strategy, but
it makes it difficult to determine the impact of subsistence hunting in each
of these countries since it means that there is also little or no monitoring
of the peccary harvests. Moreover, game meat hunting is known to be damaging
many mammalian populations throughout Central and South America. The best
examples are the recent declines of the woolly monkey (Lagothrix lagothricha) and manatee (Trichechus inunguis) populations in Brazil and Peru (Peres,
1990). By the same token, peccary populations that are exploited by meat or
hide hunters must be managed to avoid overexploitation. In this respect,
priority should also be given to the interests of subsistence hunters, by the
placing of restrictions on commercial hunters. Certain countries, such as Peru, have estimated
peccary harvests by closely monitoring the movement of hides, because the
number of hides is assumed to reflect the number of peccaries hunted.
Restrictions placed on specific types of hunters in Peru have significantly
decreased the number of hides exported. For example, before the prohibition
of professional pelt hunters in Peru the average annual harvest was 173,543
peccaries, whereas after the prohibition the average annual harvest dropped
to 64,034 (Bodmer et al., 1988).
Thus it appears that some countries in South America might best manage the
peccary harvest by regulating specific types of hunters. In contrast, in
countries such as Argentina and Paraguay, where no attempts have been made to
control the peccary harvest, there has been a decline in the populations of
all three species of peccaries, which may ultimately lead to the collapse of
the peccary harvest as well threatening the survival of more abundant Tayassu spp., as it is already
threatening the Chacoan peccary, C.
wagneri (Taber, 1990, 1993). Conservation Measures Proposed: An Action Plan An action plan for the human utilization of Tayassu is in fact a management plan
to ensure the sustained use of peccaries and avert over-hunting. This action
plan outlines the procedures necessary to monitor and analyze the present
status of peccary populations, hunters, meat and pelt markets, and past and
existing management programmes. The implementation and monitoring of
alternative management techniques is also discussed. In order to ensure the
sustained use of Tayassu peccary
populations, hunters, markets and management programmes must be analyzed in
representative habitats within different countries. Each country has its own
set of management legislations that effect peccaries, hunters, and markets.
Management programmes must work with legislatory authorities in order to keep
within legal boundaries, initiate appropriate amendments to existing laws and
promote new legislation. Objectives 1. To promote
the sustainable utilisation of healthy populations of both Tayassu spp. by subsistence hunters,
based on sound management principles. 2. To develop
and improve local legislations and enforcement procedures appertaining to the
management of peccary populations in the various Latin American countries. 3. To promote
the improved monitoring and control of trade in peccary meat and hide
products and the prohibition of hunting for purely commercial purposes. 4. To encourage
the return of profits from peccary hides sold as by-products of subsistence
hunting to rural communities and utilized to improve peccary management and
conservation, as well as the wider issues of habitat protection and
sustainable rural development. Priority Projects and Recommendations 1. Carry out comparative studies of peccary
population dynamics in hunted and non-hunted areas. Studies of selected peccary populations are required
to determine the relationship between hunting pressure and the age structure
and density of those populations in representative areas. Comparative data
should be obtained from studies in fully protected areas, so as to provide
control data, if hunting is truly absent. Particular aspects of such studies
should include: a) estimates of the densities of peccary populations (e.g. by
using Fourier series expansion of line transects; Burnham et al., 1980); b) the determination of
age structure of peccary populations (e.g. by examining teeth wear from a
representative sample of individuals; though a standard correlation measure
for age/teeth wear also needs to be determined for both Tayassu spp. in tropical forest, savanna, and desert/chaco
habitats); and c) estimation of hunting pressure in representative areas (by
monitoring harvests at check points and/or by oral and written surveys). The
correlation of hunting pressure to age structure and density will enable
managers to determine which peccary populations are sustainably harvested and
which are over-hunted. For example, peccary populations with an age structure
tending towards younger animals coupled with low densities signifies a
healthy population. However, density, age structure and hunting pressure must
be collected using standardized measurements to permit quantitative
comparisons. 2. Conduct hunter surveys and analysis of the peccary
harvest. Types of hunters and methods of harvest should be
studied in each representative area and hunters categorized according to
their intended use of the peccaries. These categories include: sport hunters
and recreational benefits, commercial meat hunters and the meat trade,
commercial hide hunters and the hide trade, subsistence hunters and levels of
dependency on game meat resources, agricultural hunters and elimination of
pests, and timber/oil hunters and company operations. Data required includes:
a) the proportion of the harvest taken by each type of hunter; b)
determination of products (pelts, meat or both) used by each type of hunter;
and c) determination of hunting methods and their relative efficiency and
proportion of animals taken by each of the different hunting techniques. This
information will enable managers to determine who is harvesting the peccaries
and why, with a view to the development of management strategies geared to
the needs of specific socio-economic groups and the improved regulation of
this harvest. 3. Study and improve the monitoring of the peccary
meat and hide trade. Markets that sell peccary meat should be monitored
in large cities and a representative sample of smaller towns. The quantities
of peccary meat and hides sold, and prices paid to producers and retailers,
should be registered in order to calculate the size and value of these
products in these markets. The socio-economics of meat consumers should be
studied to determine who buys peccary meat in different regions and
countries. The peccary hide market should be monitored at local and national
levels, as well as the international level. On a local scale the price paid
to hunters per hide, the movement of hides into cities and the proportion of
hides sold per animal hunted, should be studied in representative areas.
Monitoring on a national level should include the number of peccary hides
processed, the price paid to intermediaries per hide and the proportion of
hides exported versus those used nationally. On an international scale,
CITES-listing must be maintained and trade data collection improved by the
enhanced monitoring of the movement of peccary products between producer
countries in South America. Wholesale and retail prices paid for peccary
hides and products, and the demand for these products also require
monitoring. 4. Analyze, develop and implement management
programs. Existing peccary populations management programmes
should be investigated to determine criteria and operational procedures most
likely to be successful in different countries and regions. Effectiveness of
management programmes will vary between different habitats, types of hunters
and market forces. Wildlife personnel must be appropriately trained before
peccary management initiatives can be implemented. However, generalized
procedure for the management of peccary populations might be as follows: - Study past and
existing management programmes with regard to peccary populations, hunters
and markets to determine the relative success of current management
strategies and options for their improved effectiveness. - Studies should then
be conducted to determine at what level management procedures can be most
effective by testing alternative programmes. - The most effective
management techniques should then be implemented. - Peccary populations,
hunters and markets should be continually monitored and management programmes
adjusted to changing conditions. Potential options for the improved
management of peccary populations, which can be implemented at the animal,
hunter, and market levels, are outlined as follows: a) Animal population level - encourage
increased size of peccary populations by slowing destruction of natural
habitats (e.g. rainforests and the Chaco); introduce ranching or captive
propagation of peccaries, with appropriate genetic and demographic
management. b) Hunter level - prohibit or strictly
regulate certain categories of hunting (e.g. commercial hunting for meat or
hides, hunting by lumber and fuel company employees); implement male only
hunts; implement comprehensive hunting quotas or quotas for commercial
hunting categories; introduce education programmes to teach hunters about
overexploitation and the need to avoid harvesting certain age/sex classes;
and regulate distribution of arms and ammunition.
c) Meat market level - establish inspection
posts where peccary meat must be authorized prior to being sold in market
stalls or restaurants; allow sale of only male peccary meat; set quotas or
prohibit the sale of peccary meat in food markets; initiate education
programmes directed towards urban consumers to decrease the demand for
peccary meat; implement tax controls to maintain artificially low wholesale
prices in order to reduce producer profits and lessen incentives for
commercial meat hunting, whilst also maintaining high retail prices high to
deter consumers; and permit profits from this trade to be used to support
these management programmes. d) Pelt market level - support efforts of
CITES to monitor the hide trade and improve monitoring of the international
trade between producer nations in South America; encourage the development of
peccary management programmes, especially in producer countries; initiate
education programmes in the major importing countries in order to decrease
consumer demand (thereby also reducing retail prices and incentives for
commercial hide hunters); impose wholesale price controls and/or control
wholesale outlets, whilst also implementing sales taxes to maintain high
retail prices to deter commercial interests at the producer and consumer
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