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Pigs, Peccaries and
Hippos Status Survey and Action Plan (1993) Chapter 2.4 The Chacoan Peccary (Catagonus wagneri) Andrew B. Taber Status and Action Plan Summary Status category 5 (endangered). Although still widely distributed through its limited
geographical range, the Chacoan peccary is now seriously threatened. Its
numbers are declining and populations are becoming increasingly fragmented.
Destruction of its habitat is accelerating, and hunting for human consumption
continues uncontrolled. The evident scarcity of Chacoan peccaries in the few
national parks within its range is particularly worrying. Under existing
conditions there is little hope for recovery and the trend is downwards. The
total population size is unknown, but probably several thousand persist in
the dry Chaco of Argentina and Bolivia and an estimated 5,000 individuals
survive in Paraguay. Priority conservation actions recommended for this
species are: (1) investigate the feasibility of establishing a new national
park where a substantial peccary population still exists; (2) establish
private reserves on land where significant numbers of peccaries survive; (3)
enforce regulations against hunting both inside and outside national parks
and reserves; (4) establish and enhance existing environmental education
programmes to increase local awareness of conservation problems and the value
of native wildlife, using the Chacoan peccary as a flagship species; (5)
strengthen wildlife services in Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay so that populations
can be monitored and hunting controlled; (6) continue efforts to breed
Chacoan peccaries in captivity; (7) investigate the feasibility of
translocating wild caught animals from areas being deforested, to the parks;
and (8) continue research on the status of wild populations, aspects of the
ecology and behaviour of the species relevant to its conservation, and human
hunting patterns in the Chaco, so that effective management recommendations
can be made. Introduction The existence of the Chacoan peccary or 'tagua' was
first reported in 1975 making it one of the most recently discovered large
mammals (Wetzel et al., 1975). The
species is endemic to the dry Chaco of western Paraguay, south-eastern
Bolivia and northern Argentina; one of the hottest and driest regions of
South America. The Gran Chaco, of which the dry Chaco forms a part, is an
enormous flat plain with a mosaic of vegetation types including thorn forest,
savannah, parkland, marsh and gallery forest. Chacoan peccaries are a
scientifically interesting and important endemic form with many
morphological, behavioral and ecological adaptations to their hostile
environment. They also have potential as a source of bush meat for rural
inhabitants and, if properly conserved and managed, they could prove an
invaluable economic incentive to preserve habitat in a wild or semi-wild
state. Being large and conspicuous, C.
wagneri is also an ideal flagship species for the Chaco, a region with a
surprisingly rich and still little known fauna (see Redford et al., 1990). The Chacoan peccary is distinguished from the other
living peccaries, Tayassu tajacu
and T. pecari, by its larger size,
greater mass, proportionally bigger head with an elongated and convex
rostrum, long ears and fur, whitish ruff on the jowls, and relatively long
legs (Wetzel et al., 1975; Wetzel,
1977b; Grubb & Groves 1993). Mean body weight of non-pregnant adults is
34.7kg (range: 29.5 - 40), total length averages 1,091mm, and height at
shoulder 575mm (Mayer and Brandt, 1982). Its long legs and hooves suggest
that it is more cursorial than either Tayassu species. The structure
of its mandible and dentition also seem to be more adapted for browsing than
the other living peccaries (Wetzel, 1977b). They have four pairs of mammae,
and a dorsal scent gland about 20cm above the tail; the latter is a typical
feature of the Dicotylidae. In common with the other peccaries, they have 4
toes on their fore feet, but most individuals have only two toes on the hind
feet instead of three as in the other species. There is no significant sexual
dimorphism; nor have any subspecies been described (Mayer and Brandt, 1982). Former and Present Distribution The Chacoan peccary is endemic to the semi-arid
thorn forest of the Gran Chaco. It has a total geographical range of
approximately 140,000 km2 (Fig. 3; Sowls, 1984). In Paraguay, the species formerly occurred in all
departments of the Chaco. At the time of its discovery in the mid 1970's this
species was still remarkably abundant, though its numbers have since
plummeted. In 1976, Sowls (1984) sighted 72 individuals during a 19 day
period along one section of the Trans-Chaco highway. However, far fewer
animals were sighted during field trips in the same area in 1977 and 1979
and, in 1981, only 6 individuals were seen. In 1987, during a 10 day survey
in the same region, no Chacoan peccaries were sighted by the present author,
who was told by local people that the species had virtually disappeared.
Today the Chacoan peccary has an extremely fragmented distribution in
Paraguay and the only area where a significant population survives (c. 4,000
individuals; Taber, in press), albeit at low density, is in the southwestern
department of Boquerón. During 1989, the presence of Chacoan peccaries was
verified in both Argentina and Bolivia (Taber, 1991). In Argentina, Chacoan
peccaries occurred in Chaco, Formosa, Salta and Santiago del Estero
Provinces, and although it remains widely distributed through this region it
is now found only at very low density (Ojeda and Cajal, 1976; Olrog et al., 1976; Wetzel et al., 1975; Wetzel and Crespo, 1976;
R. Ojeda, pers. comm.). The Bolivian Chaco is on the periphery of its range
but C. wagneri persists in the departments of Chuquisaca, Santa Cruz, and
Tarija (Eisentraut, 1986; Taber, unpubl.; Tello, 1986). Link to Fig. 3:
Approximate former and present known range of the giant or Chacoan peccary, Catagonus wagneri. Habitat, Ecology and Behavior The Chacoan peccary occurs in areas of low rainfall
and high temperature and is restricted to the driest parts of the Gran Chaco
biome (Sowls, 1984). Mean annual temperatures in its range exceed 24oC
(Gorham, 1973) and annual rainfall may be as little as 200 mm in the western
part of its range. Precipitation increases to the east to about 900 mm where
the dry Chaco is replaced by the palm savannah of the moist Chaco. Most of
the precipitation in its geographical range occurs between December and
March, and no rain may fall during five (June to October) or more months of
the year. The prime habitat for the species is thorn forest
characterized by emergent tress, such as Schinopsis
lorentzii and Aspidosperma
quebracho-blanco; a dense shrub layer including Ruprechtia triflora, Caparis
sp. and Acacia sp.; and a ground
cover of bromeliads and cactii, such as Opuntia
sp., Cleistocactus baumannii and Eriocereus guelichii (Mayer and
Brandt, 1982). Chacoan peccaries are also found at lower density in open
woodland, characterized by trees such as Tabebuia
caraiba and Schinopsis balansae
(Taber, unpubl.). Cactii, including Cleistocactus, Eriocereus
and at least two species of Opuntia,
constitute the principal food of Chacoan peccaries. They also forage on the
roots of bromeliads, fruit from various species of Acacia and Prosopis,
and occasionally browse on forbs (Mayer and Brandt, 1982; Taber, unpubl.).
Chacoan peccaries lick and eat mineral rich soil from naturally occurring
salt licks and leaf-cutter ant mounds. They also consume carrion on occasion
and may even prey on small mammals (Benirschke et al., 1990). Although captive animals drink daily (D. Meritt,
pers. comm.), there is circumstantial evidence that the species seldom drinks
water in the wild, and radio-tagged individuals did not leave their
territories to obtain water even during the five months long dry season when
no surface water was available in their ranges. Like the collared peccary, they are territorial and
maintain scat stations and marking posts; the latter being marked with their
dorsal scent gland. Their home range size, based on convex polygons, measure
about 1,100 ha and contain a core area of about 600 ha (Taber, unpubl.). Chacoan peccaries are diurnal and become active
about sunrise, are active throughout the day and become inactive at dusk
(Taber, unpubl.). The species seems to have a similar behavioral repertoire
and social system to that of Collared peccary, T. tajacu (Mayer & Wetzel, 1989). Chacoan peccaries live in
small stable groups of 2 to 10 individuals, with most groups consisting of 4
to 5 adults and accompanying juveniles. A slightly biased sex ratio in favor
of males has been reported by Mayer and Brandt (1982) and Sowls (1984).
Circumstantial and captive evidence suggests that females produce their first
litters at a minimum age of two years and have only one litter a year
(Benirschke et al., 1990; Taber,
unpubl.). The mean litter size is 2.72, with a range of 1 to 4. The farrowing
season extends from September through January. Maximum longevity is unknown
but Sowls (1984) estimated the age of some individuals, based on tooth
cementum layers, as at least nine years. Threats to Survival The recent decline in the range and numbers of
Chacoan peccaries is probably due to a combination of factors. These factors
include hunting by humans, predation by larger felids, habitat destruction
and disease (Taber, 1989, 1991). Of these, hunting pressure undoubtedly has a major
negative impact on these animals. All peccary species in the Chaco are
vigorously hunted wherever they occur, even in the national parks and reserve
areas. Sowls (1984) has stated the Chacoan peccary constituted one of the
most important sources of bush meat in the areas where they were previously
abundant. The species is particularly susceptible as they frequently emerge
onto roads to dust bathe during the day, and they often react to danger by
standing their ground rather than fleeing. Both of these behaviors enable
hunters to eliminate whole groups during a single encounter. Unlike the
collared and white-lipped peccaries, however, Chacoan peccaries are rarely
exploited commercially for their hides, which are thinner and much less
valuable than those of the other species. Fur buyers in Paraguay in 1988, for
example, purchased Catagonus skins from settlers for about US$ 0.5 each
compared to about US$8.0 for those of T.
tajacu and US$ 5.0 for T. pecari
(Taber, 1991). Jaguar (Panthera
onca) and puma (Felis concolor)
are the main natural predators of Chacoan peccaries though ocelot (F. pardalis) may also prey on the
young (Mayer & Brandt, 1982; Taber, in press). During the early 1970's
local settlers attributed an apparent increase in Chacoan peccary numbers in
Paraguay to the over-hunting of jaguar (Wetzel, 1977a). By the same token,
some Paraguayans now ascribe the current scarcity of the species to predation
by the apparently recovered large felid population. However, whilst these
predators may exert some control on Chacoan peccary numbers, it is unlikely
that they could cause the present population crash. Habitat destruction, however, is the major threat to
this species and may, ultimately, cause its demise in the wild state.
Although large tracts of intact bush survive, the rate of clearance for
agriculture and cattle pasture in the Paraguayan Chaco has been estimated by
some authorities as being as much as 1,500 sq. km annually (M. Sanjuro, pers.
comm). Moreover, the pace of land clearance is accelerating and in as little
as a decade this species may not have enough contiguous habitat left to
support viable populations. The pattern of development in Argentina and in
Bolivia where Chacoan peccaries are found, differs in that much of the land
is degraded by fire and overgrazed by livestock (Morello and Hortt, 1985;
Taber, unpubl.). These peccaries seem to adapt to this degraded dry Chaco
bush, and survive in altered, but not cleared, habitat as long as enough food
and cover is available and they are not over-hunted (Taber and Ojeda,
unpubl.). Several, apparently reliable reports have been
received that individuals and groups of Chacoan peccaries were found dead or
dying from disease in the northern and western Paraguayan Chaco between 1979
and 1981. The nature of this disease is unknown, but both foot-and-mouth
disease and bovine rabies were common in the region in the late 1970's (W.
Regehr, pers. comm.). It is noteworthy that large numbers of cattle first
reached this area during the 1970's, though Chacoan peccaries have persisted
in parts of the Argentine Chaco, which have had livestock, and their
associated diseases, for 100 years or more. Thus, a possible explanation for
the population crash in the largely virgin bush of northwestern Paraguay may
be that the peccaries previously had little exposure and, hence, little
immunity to livestock diseases (Taber, 1989, 1991). Conservation Measures Taken The Chacoan peccary is classed as 'Vulnerable' in
the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (1988), and it is included on
Appendix I of CITES, to which all three Chaco countries are signatories.
Hunting of all wildlife in Paraguay is officially prohibited. The species is
also protected in Argentina, where its exportation, interprovincial traffic
and commercial exploitation is illegal. However, there is little commercial
traffic in the hides of this species and it is not thought to be threatened
by the skin trade at the present time. Even so, the Chacoan peccary is
heavily hunted for its meat everywhere it occurs and existing regulations
prohibiting its hunting are ignored and unenforced. Field status surveys on the species have been
completed in all three Chaco countries, as well as an ecological field study
in Paraguay. A conservation action plan for the species in Paraguay was
submitted to the Paraguayan Government in 1990 (Taber, 1990) and similar
plans are being prepared for submission to the relevant authorities in
Bolivia and Argentina in 1991. At present, there are only two national parks within
this species' range in Paraguay, the Defensores del Chaco (7,800 sq. km) and
Teniente Enciso (400 sq. km). As yet, there are no reserves of any kind in
the Bolivian Chaco. In Argentina, the only protected area containing Chacoan
peccaries is the El Copo Provincial Reserve (1,140 sq. km), in Santiago del
Estero province. However, there are only small numbers of Chacoan peccaries
in this reserve, and in each of the two Paraguayan parks, and it is doubtful
if any of these areas support viable populations. In addition, these reserves
all require major investments in personnel, training, equipment, and infrastructure
if the staff is to control hunting effectively. Captive Breeding The species has proved difficult to establish in
captivity. Two of the three hand-reared animals exported to Zoo Berlin died
in quarantine and the third succumbed shortly afterwards (Frädrich, 1986).
Two animals also died after capture in Argentina (J. Cajal, pers. comm.), and
two of three animals kept at various times at the Asuncion zoo died within a
year of their arrivals, one of them probably from erysipelas (J. A. Rivas,
pers. comm). The zoo in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia has also acquired at
least three animals in recent years, though the first two of these have died
(O. Jordan, pers. comm). In 1985, following PPSG representation, the Chacoan
peccary was adopted for a Species Survival Plan (SSP) under the aegis of the
Conservation Management Committee of the American Association of Zoological
Parks and Aquariums (AAZPA). The following year, a captive breeding station
was established at Estancia Toledo, near Filadelfia, in the central
Paraguayan Chaco, with funding from the Foundation for Endangered Animals,
the Zoological Society of San Diego, and the Lincoln Park Zoo. During the
first few years of this project, serious problems were experienced obtaining
animals and many of those acquired from hunters were in a seriously
debilitated condition. Of the total of 44 wild caught adult and juvenile
animals obtained (mostly by purchase) for 'Proyecto Tagua' 31 died in
captivity (Byrd et al., 1988;
Benirschke et al., 1990; Unger,
i992; D. Brooks, pers. comm.). However, as of 10th May 1992 (Unger, 1992),
the colony comprised a total of 43 (22 males, 14 females + 7 unsexed)
individuals of which 32 (15 males, 10 females + 7 unsexed) individuals were
captive born (Unger, 1992). Conservation Measures Proposed: An Action Plan With the wide range of problems confronting this
species in the wild, a variety of actions will be necessary to conserve it.
The principal objectives and priorities of the conservation action plan for
the tagua in the Paraguayan Chaco (Taber, 1990), and the similar plans being
prepared for the populations of this species in Bolivia and Argentina, are
incorporated in the following recommendations, with the additional proviso
that the priority projects should be implemented as soon as possible. Objectives 1. To ensure
the survival of the Chacoan peccary in perpetuity by the promotion and
implementation of those activities and projects specified in the Action Plan
or such others as may be identified in future. 2. To promote
the development and implementation of an effective conservation strategy for
the whole dry Chaco as a means of preserving not only the Chacoan peccary but
representative parts of this ecosystem in its entirety. 3. As part of
this strategy to promote research into, and implementation of, ecologically
sustainable development practices in the Chaco. Priority Projects 1. Upgrade and expand the existing protected areas system within the
dry Chaco of Paraguay, Argentina and Bolivia. At present, there are only two national parks within
this species' range in Paraguay (Defensores del Chaco, 7,800 sq. km, and
Teniente Enciso, 400 sq. km), one provincial reserve in Argentina (El Copo,
1,140 sq. km), and no reserves at all in the Bolivian Chaco. Moreover, none
of the three reserves in which it occurs is thought to support a viable
population, and major investments in personnel, training, equipment, and
infrastructure are needed in each of these areas if hunting is to be
controlled effectively. Efforts must therefore be directed towards the
establishment of additional protected areas in each of these countries, but
especially in the Paraguayan department of Boquerón, where substantial
numbers of these animals still occur. The problems with the existing parks
systems in these countries also need to be addressed by local, national and
international organizations. Investments will need to be made by
international aid organizations; though the solutions to the problems will
depend as much on promoting regional patrimony and interest in the parks as
in providing financial assistance. 2. Create a private reserve system in the Chaco. Given that significant numbers of Chacoan peccaries
now survive in only a few locations outside the existing protected areas
system, and that these may be the only viable populations, the creation of
additional reserves is critical. Current efforts in Paraguay to set up a
system of reserves on private land in areas with high densities of Chacoan
peccaries are, therefore, a matter of the highest priority. Parallel private
reserve programmes also need to be developed in the Argentinean and Bolivian
Chaco by appropriate NGO's. These areas may be of the utmost importance in
the event that the populations in the parks do not recover with more
effective protection, and could provide a source of animals for re-stocking
those parks in the future. 3. Establish an effective hunting ban on the
species. The capability of the wildlife services of the
Paraguayan, Argentinean and Bolivian governments to monitor Chacoan peccary
populations and enforce existing regulations should be developed by all
possible means (also see below). In Paraguay, for example, it might be better
to permit hunting of less vulnerable species, than perpetuate the existing
total, but totally unenforceable, ban on all hunting. This would provide
better protection for the most vulnerable species, whilst also enabling
subsistence hunters to obtain meat legally. By the same token, this would
also encourage the government to establish an effective wildlife management
system rather than avoid confronting the problem by making hunting of all
species illegal. 4. Develop an environmental education program. The Chacoan peccary has tremendous potential as a
flagship species around which to stimulate conservation interest and action
in the Chaco. New and existing programmes established by governmental
organizations and NGO's should focus attention on this species by the
production of posters, booklets and other materials for distribution amongst
Chaco inhabitants to inform them of the species' status and the potential
benefits of protecting it and its habitat. Such education programmes should
also inform local people which species may and may not be hunted, in order to
protect the most threatened species. 5. Develop effective wildlife services in all three
Chaco countries. There is a need to establish an integrated approach
to wildlife management in these countries, which incorporates both
conservation and game management policies, in order to protect the most
threatened species. The economic importance of some non-threatened species,
such as the collared peccary, should be recognized within a management system
designed to ensure the sustainable exploitation of those species, as well as
the enhanced future protection of the most threatened forms, such as the
Chacoan peccary. However, there is a lack of trained personnel in this region
and the training of local biologists to study and monitor wildlife
populations should be a high priority. Conservation biology workshops would
be held each year in each Chaco country to provide biologists, rangers and
wildlife administrators with the opportunity to obtain field experience and
exchange ideas and expertise. Grants should be provided for biology students
from each country to obtain advanced degrees in wildlife management or a
related field. 6. Improve and extend captive breeding initiatives. The existing captive breeding program at Estancio
Toledo in the Paraguayan Chaco should be continued and developed with a view
to: (a) provide a safeguard against the extinction of this species in the
wild; (b) serve as a source of animals for the establishment of similar
projects in the other Chaco countries and/or for reintroduction projects; (c)
provide the means of obtaining biological data on the species which cannot be
obtained from the wild; and (d) serve as a public education and training
facility for wildlife biologists and veterinarians from Paraguay and the
other Chaco countries. 7. Assess the feasibility of translocating wild caught peccaries into
the national parks or other reserves from areas where the natural habitat is
being destroyed. Problems which need to be addressed include: (a) how
can animals be captured and transported safely; (b) how can translocated
animals be effectively protected in these areas; and (c) what behavioral and
ecological problems must be solved to make translocation successful? 8. Conduct further research on various aspects of the Chacoan
peccary's reproductive biology, behavior, ecology and future management needs
both in the wild and in captivity. In particular, the status of the various wild
populations needs to be monitored, the effects of human hunting and predation
on these populations needs to be determined, and studies should be conducted
on the susceptibility of this species to various livestock borne diseases so
that appropriate management responses can be devised if necessary. A study of
human hunting patterns in the Chaco and estimates of the annual harvest of
all species taken by both sports and subsistence hunters in the various parts
of the Chaco are also required. These data are likely to prove essential for
the enhanced future management of this species, and they may provide strong
incentive reasons for national governments to initiate serious efforts to
control human hunting activities and conserve wildlife populations. Acknowledgements I am grateful for the assistance of many officials
and scientists within the Paraguayan Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock,
in particular: Oscar Meza, Eustacio Rios, and Celeste Acevedo. I extend my
gratitude to my assistants Nora Neris, Flavio Colman and Juan Carlos Rebollo
for their invaluable help in the field. Many other people in Paraguay have
provided valuable information and help, and I thank them. In Argentina, I
gratefully acknowledge Ricardo Ojeda and Jorge Cajal for their assistance and
advice; and in Bolivia I especially thank Arturo Moscoso, Marcello Salles,
and Otto Carlos Jordan. I also gratefully acknowledge Wildlife Conservation
International for providing the funds for the field study. William Oliver,
Richard Bodmer, Ignacio March and Dennis Meritt kindly provided comments on
earlier drafts of this text, and Paul Vercammen and Peter Cuypers kindly
prepared the distribution map. Lastly, I thank my wife, Dolores Ayerza,
without whose help my work in Paraguay would have been impossible. References Benirschke, K.
B., Byrd, M. L and Meritt, D. 1990. New observations on the Chacoan peccary, Catagonus wagneri. (Unpubl.)
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group of the Chaco peccary, Catagonus
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379-381. |
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