Here we review what has and has not been accomplished in the projects listed in the original plan, together with recommendations for future action on each project. A standard format is used:
Recommended action provides an abbreviated version of what was recommended in the first plan;
What has been done, Problems encountered and Recommendations for the future summarize information and advice gleaned from published and unpublished reports, correspondence, personal experience and/or responses given by PSG members to a circulated draft of this review;
Organizations involved (listed alphabetically) are those known to have provided some significant funding, on-ground management and/or research at some point (they are not necessarily involved at the present time).
It was originally planned that a list of key project implementors would be provided; this category has been dropped because it led to much disagreement about who should and should not be listed.
ACCP—Alliance Congolaise pour la Conservation des Primates
BRD: Berggorilla and Regenwald Direkthilfe (Germany)
CECI—Centre Canadien d'Etudes et de Coopération Internationale
CI—Conservation International (USA)
CIRMF—Centre International de Recherches Medicales de Franceville (Gabon)
CRSN—Centre de Recherche en Sciences Naturelles (Zaire)
CSSL—Conservation Society of Sierra Leone
DAAD—German Academic Exchange Service
DFG—German Science Foundation
DPNS—Direction des Parcs nationaux du Sénégal
DPZ—German Primate Center
EAWS—East African Wildlife Society (Kenya)
EU—European Union (formerly the European Community or EC)
EU/ECOFAC—EU sponsored project for the study of biodiversity, conservation and development in Central African forests
EWCO—Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisation
FDAL—Forestry Development Authority of Liberia, Division of National Parks and Wildlife
GEF—Global Environmental Facility (World Bank)
GTZ—The German technical cooperation agency
FFI—Fauna and Flora International (UK)
FINNIDA—Finnish International Development Agency
FZS—Frankfurt Zoological Society (Germany)
HC/CUNY—Hunter College of CUNY, New York (USA)
IGCP—International Gorilla Conservation Project
INECN—Institut National pour l'Environnement et la Conservation de la Nature (Burundi)
IPPL—International Primate Protection League (USA)
ITFC—Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation (Uganda)
IUCN—World Conservation Union
IZCN—Institut Zairois pour la Conservation de la Nature
JGI—Jane Goodall Institute (USA)
JIC—Japan International Cooperation Agency
KIFCON—Kenya Indigenous Forest Conservation Project
KIPR—Kenya Institute of Primate Research
KWS—Kenya Wildlife Service
MBG—Missouri Botanical Garden
NMK—National Museums of Kenya
NCF—Nigerian Conservation Foundation
NGS—National Geographic Society (USA)
NSF—National Science Foundation (USA)
NYZS—see WCS
ODA—Overseas Development Administration (UK)
ORSTOM—L'institut français de recherche scientifique pour le développement en coopération
PTES—People's Trust for Endangered Species (UK)
RSPB—Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (UK)
TANAPA—Tanzania National Parks
UM—University of Miami, Florida (USA)
Unesco—United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNP—Ugandan National Parks
USAID—United States Agency for International Development
USFWS—United States Fish and Wildlife Service
USPC—United States Peace Corps
WB—World Bank
WCS—Wildlife Conservation Society (formerly WCI, A division of the New York Zoological Society)
WWF—World Wildlife Fund (in the USA)/World Wide Fund for Nature (outside the USA)
1. Conservation of Taï National Park
Country: Ivory Coast
Recommended action: Improve protection of this largest (3,400 km2) and most developed protected area in the Upper Guinea region, including hiring a trained warden to organize patrols and enforce regulations.
Termite nest in the buttress of a large canopy tree in the Taï Forest, Ivory Forest.
Scott McGraw
Old treefall area in the Taï Forest, Ivory Coast.
Scott McGraw
What has been done: Research programs on chimps, colobus monkeys, guenons, and other mammals continue. Park boundaries are being demarcated, guards are being trained and an education program developed. Some development activities (tree nursery, fish breeding) have started.
Organizations involved: Direction Générale des Eaux et Forêts; GTZ; KfW; Tropenbos Foundation; Unesco; Wageningen Agricultural University; WWF.
Problems encountered: There is controversy over a 840 km2“protection zone” around the park, which is officially regarded as an extension of the park, but which others consider a buffer zone for controlled use. There has been cultivation in the protection zone, especially by immigrants (Riezebos et al. 1994). The human population around the park has increased sevenfold since 1975 and the numbers have recently been increased by refugees from Liberia. Park protection is still weak, and poaching and illegal logging within the forest are increasing.
Recommendations for the future: Tackle the buffer zone problem and work with people around park to increase their participation in conservation efforts. Strengthen forest protection efforts and monitor primate populations.
2. Development of Sapo National Park
Country: Liberia
Recommended action: Employ, train and equip staff to lay out boundaries and patrol routes; establish research station.
What has been done: The park (1308 km2—Collar & Stuart 1988) was established in 1986. Primate surveys were conducted in 1988–89 and P. badius badius and Cercopithecus diana diana were found to be common.
Organizations involved: FDAL; Philadelphia Zoo; Society for the Renewal of Nature Conservation in Liberia; USPC; WWF.
Problems encountered: Prior to 1990, logging roads on the boundary of the park were promoting illegal hunting inside. Since civil war broke out in Liberia in 1990, park management has been suspended and much of Liberia outside the capital has descended into a state of anarchy. Reports from refugees from the Sapo region suggest that hunting has decreased (because many people have left rural areas and people carrying guns are at risk).
Recommendations for the future: As soon as the political situation allows, a full assessment of the fate of Sapo should be carried out, including an evaluation of the state of Liberian governmental and non-governmental conservation organizations. Only then can detailed recommendations be made for future activities, but almost certainly a major rehabilitation of Sapo will be required.
Adult female Diana monkey (Cercopithecus diana) feeds on a Sacoglottis fruit in the Taï Forest, Ivory Coast. The Diana monkey is a highly arboreal guenon restricted to the high forests of the Upper Guinea region, where it is threatened by habitat destruction and hunting.
Scott McGraw
3. Conservation of the Gola Forest
Country: Sierra Leone
Recommended action: Implement management plans currently being proposed; develop a reasearch station on Tiwai Island on the western edge of the Gola Forest.
What has been done: A management study of the Gola Forest Reserves (total area 748 km2) was done in 1984–85 (Davies 1987), but the recommendations have not yet been implemented. RSPB was recently involved in an effort to develop Davies' studies further, and began a conservation education program around Gola North. A research station was developed at Tiwai and served as a base for long-term studies of Cercopithecus diana and three colobus species; tourism and education programs were also developed.
Organizations involved: CSSL; HC/CUNY; ODA; RSPB; Sierra Leone Forestry Division; UM; University of Sierra Leone; WCS.
Problems encountered: Research and conservation efforts have been disrupted by rebel incursions from Liberia, commencing in 1991. A German team was to do a forest inventory of Gola using remote sensing, but this has been indefinitely postponed. The Tiwai field station has been damaged by rebels. There has probably been hunting of primates both at Tiwai and in the Golas.
Recommendations for the future: When security is restored to the area, a full evaluation of the impact of the insurgency must be made. If still feasible, conservation-oriented management of the string of islands connecting Tiwai with Gola West should be developed. A field station near Gola North is needed to focus attention on the Gola region and act as a nucleus from which surveys, research and patrols can be coordinated.
4. West Ghana Parks
Country: Ghana
Recommended action: Encourage consolidation of the adjacent Ankasa Game Production Reserve and Nini-Suhien National Park into one park, as well as the protection and consolidation of Bia National Park and Bia Game Production Reserve.
Immigrant farmers on the edge of the Ankasa Resource Reserve / Nini Suhien National Park in western Ghana. This reserve complex has suffered heavily from poaching.
John F. Oates
What has been done: A student group studied birds in Nini-Suhien and Ankasa in 1988–89. Oates, Struhsaker and Whitesides made short visits to Ankasa and Bia in 1993 and 1995. IUCN has conducted a review of forest research management in Ghana. A project to improve protection has been funded by the EU.
Organizations involved: CI; EU; Ghana Dept. of Wildlife; IUCN.
Problems encountered: The surveys conducted so far have found that poaching has been rampant in both Ankasa and Bia for many years. No direct evidence of red colobus or mangabeys were found at either site in 1993 or 1995, but Roloway monkeys were detected in Ankasa and Nini-Suhien.
Recommendations for the future: Greatly improved protection of Ankasa/Nini-Suhien is urgently needed, as well as additional surveys to clarify the status of Cercocebus atys lunulatus and Procolobus badius waldroni.
5. Survey of Lofa-mano
Country: Liberia
Recommended action: Assess wildlife populations and management needs toward establishing it as a national park.
What has been done: The proposed Lofa Mano National Park described by Verschuren (1982) includes part of the Gola National Forest, where some surveys were conducted by Poelker, Coleman and Dunn in 1989–90. Primate densities were found to be low as a result of heavy hunting pressure and no red colobus were detected, but Diana monkeys and chimpanzees were still present.
Organizations involved: FDAL; WWF.
Problems encountered: Not only was hunting a serious problem in 1989–90, but this area has almost certainly been affected by the unrest on the Liberia-Sierra Leone border that began March 1991.
Recommendations for the future: Undertake more extensive surveys when the political situation allows. Pay particular attention to relationships of this area to Sierra Leone's Gola Forest. Clarify status of Lofa-Mano National Park proposal.
6. Survey of Eastern and Central Ivory Coast
Country: Ivory Coast
Recommended action: Survey to identify a site or sites for primate conservation;Cercopithecus diana roloway and Cercocebus atys lunulatus occur here and need better protection. Study faunal transition zone near Sassandra River.
What has been done: There has been a survey of chimpanzee populations across the whole of southern Ivory Coast, which found chimpanzees least common in the far east (Hoppe-Dominik 1991). This survey recommended better conservation of the Sangan-Tamin-Mabi-Yaya protected forests in eastern Ivory Coast.
Organizations involved: DPZ; Ministère de Recherche Scientifique, Ivory Coast.
Problems encountered: There appears to have been a general lack of interest in this area. The chimpanzee survey revealed widespread forest loss.
Recommendations for the future: Complete original recommendation as soon as possible, especially searching for viable populations of Cercocebus atys lunulatus, Cercopithecus diana roloway and Procolobus badius waldroni; pay particular attention to the Sangaa-Tamin-Mabi-Yaya forests.
7. Development of Korup National Park
Country: Cameroon
Recommended action: Improve conservation of park (1,260 km2) by resettling resident villagers; construct park headquarters, trails and tourist facilities. Among important primates are Mandrillus leucophaeus and Procolobus badius preussi form of red colobus.
What has been done: Little progress in resettlement has been made. A park headquarters has been constructed. Educational activities are underway by environmental education officers, and there are demonstration projects involving farming practices and alternatives to hunting. A research program was initiated and a field station established in the northern part of the forest. Primate studies have included surveys of diurnal primates by Edwards and Usongo and of nocturnal primates by Bearder and Honess.
Organizations involved: Department of Wildlife and Protected Areas, and Ministry of Environment and Forests, Cameroon; EU; GTZ; ODA; USAID; WCS; WWF.
Problems encountered: People still reside in the park, and hunters are still active. A former intensive research area has been abandoned; when research was in progress, workers venturing outside this area received threats from people using the forest.
Recommendations for the future: Resettlement of people residing in the park is a high priority, as is enforcement of hunting laws. Alternatives to hunting should be explored in an effort to curtail hunting in the park. More research is needed on the distribution and ecology of primate species, especially the red colobus and drill. There should be more liaison with the Oban Hills project in Nigeria.
8. Oban Hills Survey
Country: Nigeria
Recommended action: Survey Oban Forest Reserves, potentially important for Mandrillus leucophaeus and the preussi form of red colobus; take action on National Park proposal.
What has been done: Preliminary primate surveys have been done, and Procolobus badius preussi, Mandrillus leucophaeus and Cercopithecus pogonias have been found, as well as C. erythrotis and Cercocebus torquatus. Cross River National Park was created by Presidential decree in 1991, including most of the Oban group of Forest Reserves as the Oban Division of the park (2,800 km2). A management plan has been drawn up and the first phase of implementation of this plan began in 1994. Part of the plan involves a “support zone” project which focuses on providing compensation for loss of access to the park, improving traditional farming systems, educating people in the principles of sustained-yield forest management, and involving communities in the development of the park. A similar plan has been developed for the northern, Okwangwo, division of the park, covered in the next section.
Organizations involved: Cross River State Government; EU; KfW; Nigerian National Parks Service; NCF; ODA; WWF.
Problems encountered: Hunting appears to continue at a high level. Resettlement problems similar to those at Korup are unresolved, although only one village is involved. There is a proposal to excise from the originally-proposed area of the Oban Division a portion of forest in the east, adjacent to Cameroon; if this portion is excised, there will no longer be any forested connection between the eastern and central parts of Oban, or between the center of Oban and Korup.
Recommendations for the future: Protection should be increased as a matter of urgency. More research on primate distribution, population biology and ecology is needed, with a special emphasis on P. b. preussi and M. leucophaeus. Local universities should be involved. Cooperation is needed between Oban and the neighboring Korup National Park.
9. Mamfe-obudu Survey and Mount Cameroon
Country: Cameroon; Nigeria
Recommended action: Survey of the area between Mamfe and Obudu, significant for Gorilla gorilla and Cercopithecus preussi; also survey primate populations on Mt. Cameroon.
A view from Nigeria's Obudu Plateau towards the Okwangwo sector of the Cross River National Park, home of the most westerly population of gorillas in Africa.
John F. Oates
What has been done: Surveys have been conducted in the adjacent Takamanda (Cameroon) and Boshi-Okwangwo (Nigeria) forests, and Boshi-Okwangwo has had a management study (Thomas 1988; Harcourt et al. 1989; Caldecott et al. 1990). Preuss's guenon, drills and gorillas were confirmed present at both sites. A Gorilla Conservation Project has begun in the Mbe Mountains (Nigeria), adjacent to Boshi-Okwangwo. The Boshi-Okwangwo Forest Reserves have been gazetted as the Okwangwo Division (920 km2) of the Cross River National Park.
A survey on Mt. Cameroon has been conducted by Gadsby and Jenkins (1992), who focused on the proposed Etinde Forest Reserve, where Cercopithecus preussi was found to be relatively abundant. Twelve other primate species were recorded, including drills and chimpanzees.
A recent survey of forests in Bakossiland, north of Mt. Cameroon (and including Mt. Kupe) found evidence of at least 13 primate species surviving, including C. preussi, drills and chimpanzees; there was no direct evidence of angwantibos, grey-cheeked mangabeys or Preuss's red colobus (King 1994).
A WCS project is underway in the Banyang-Mbo Forest Reserve, where drills are relatively abundant and chimpanzees are present.
Organizations involved: Ministry of Environment and Forests, and Department of Wildlife and Protected Areas, Cameroon; Cross River State Government, Nigeria; EU; FFI; GTZ; MBG; Nigerian National Parks; NCF; ODA; WCS; WWF.
Problems encountered: Hunting is a major problem in Boshi-Okwangwo, Takamanda, Etinde and Bakossiland. There is much farming in Bakossiland. A recommended resettlement of three communities in Boshi-Okwangwo has not been attempted.
Recommendations for the future: Efforts should be made to repeat the Takamanda survey and follow up with conservation-oriented management. In Boshi-Okwangwo, hunting must be brought under control; the nearby, isolated Afi River gorilla population requires further study and better protection. Official protection should be given to the proposed Etinde Forest Reserve and a hunting ban made effective; a forest corridor to the west of the reserve should be considered. Also on Mt. Cameroon, protection of the existing Bambuko Forest Reserve should be improved. More comprehensive surveys are needed in Bakossiland, especially in the Upper Mungo Valley where Procolobus badius preussi has been suggested to be present. Several potentially important forest areas between Mt. Cameroon and Mamfe (e.g., Nkwende Hills, Ejagham and Nta Ali) deserve investigation. The Banyang-Mbo project should continue and a drill study should be initiated there.
10. Bioko
Country: Equatorial Guinea
Recommended action: Survey forests, concentrating on Pico Basilé and the San Carlos Caldera (= Gran Caldera de Luba); make recommendations for primate conservation.
What has been done: Surveys were done in 1986, 1990 and 1992 (see e.g., Butynski & Koster 1994; Colell et al. 1994). Cercopithecus preussi was found on the two main peaks of Bioko and in the Gran Caldera. Nine other primates were also found, including Mandrillus leucophaeus, Procolobus badius pennantii and Colobus satanas. Large parts of Bioko were found to be still covered with forest. Two protected areas, Pico Basilé and the Gran Caldera de Luba have now been decreed. A meeting was convened among scientists in June 1993 to coordinate conservation efforts and make recommendations to the government (Fa & Juste 1994).
Organizations involved: Chicago Zoological Society; Generalitat de Catalunya; IUCN; Ministerio de Agricultura, Ganaderia, Pesca y Forestal, Equatorial Guinea; Universitat de Barcelona; WWF; Zoo Atlanta.
Problems encountered: The human population is increasing and with it, hunting pressure. The situation of Mandrillus leucophaeus is precarious as they are hunted with dogs. There are potential logging threats to southern Bioko. The country's legal framework for conservation is in its infancy, and the important southern half of the island particularly lacks people trained or qualified in conservation.
Recommendations for the future: Effective reserves need to be established in southwestern Bioko and on Pico Basilé, and a major research program should be initiated, including biological inventories. Natural resource legislation and especially hunting laws need to be put into place and conservation education and sustainable use programs established.
11. Development of Lopé Reserve, Gabon
Country: Gabon
Recommended action: Upgrade to National Park; revoke timbering permits. Support primate research. Study feasibility of extending reserve east across Offoué River into Forêt des Abeilles, home of Cercopithecus solatus.
What has been done: Research on gorillas and chimpanzees has been conducted by Tutin and Fernandez, Rogers and Williamson, and White. There have also been surveys of other primates. An ECOFAC project commenced in 1992, directed by M. Fernandez, which includes biological research and the establishment of a second research camp, as well as some rural development and ecotourism aspects. A management plan for the reserve (of 5,000 km2) includes a proposal for a core area of 2,200 km2 that will not be logged in the future. Gautier-Hion and others have begun a study of Cercopithecus solatus and other primates in the Forêt des Abeilles. In 1994, C. solatus was observed in the center of Lopé (White & Mackanga-Missandzou 1995).
Organizations involved: CIRMF; ELF Gabon; EU/ECOFAC; Ministère des Eaux et Forêts, Gabon; WCS; WWF.
The red-capped mangabey (Cercocebus torquatus) is a largely terrestrial rain forest species found from southern Nigeria to the western equatorial region that is a favorite target for hunters.
Russell A. Mittermeier
Problems encountered: Logging permits have been allocated that cover the entire reserve and the threat of logging has greatly increased in recent years due to completion of a railway. A national park status is not viable for the whole reserve because of its value for logging, but the proposed core area will have the same status as a park. Some loggers, knowing they will lose permits, are trying to quickly get as much as possible out of the core area.
Recommendations for the future: Legal confirmation and physical delimitation of the completely protected core area is an immediate priority, as is the maintenance of poaching at its current low level. Primate research should continue.
12. Dja Survey
Country: Cameroon
Recommended action: Survey and develop this proposed national park.
What has been done: The 5,760 km2 reserve has been designated as a World Heritage Site and Biosphere Reserve. It is also included in the EU's ECOFAC project, which conducted primate surveys in 1995. A park headquarters has been constructed. A study of hunting practices and their impact on mammal populations within the reserve is also underway. Forest guards have been trained and are doing surveillance, and the project is concentrating on developing both participative management of the reserve, and alternative sources of revenue to hunting.
Organizations involved: EU/ECOFAC; Cameroon Ministry of Environment and Forests.
Problems encountered: The Trans-African Highway threatens the Dja Reserve, which has been heavily affected by hunting, especially in its western part; both chimpanzees and gorillas are subject to hunting, along with the monkey fauna.
Recommendations for the future: Continue implemention of original recommendation, and investigate more closely the presence or absence of black colobus and mandrills in the reserve. Long-term ecological research is needed.
13. Survey of the Republic of Congo
Country: Republic of Congo
Recommended action: Conduct a country-wide survey paying particular attention to the bouvieri form of red colobus, Allenopithecus nigroviridis and Gorilla gorilla, as well as the Odzala National Park.
What has been done: Wildlife surveys have been conducted in the north (with important pioneering work on primates by Kano and Kuroda), and in the Garabinzam, Lefini, and Lac Telle areas. At the end of 1993 a new National Park, Nouabale-Ndoki, was established in the north (4,000 km2 adjacent to CAR's Dzanga-Ndoki park); research on gorillas and chimpanzees has begun here. Surveys in northern Congo (e.g., Fay & Agnagna 1992) suggest that the Country may have the largest population of gorillas in Africa. A gorilla orphanage project started in Brazzaville in 1990 has lowered the trade in apes throughout Congo; this project is establishing a natural sanctuary in the Lefini Reserve, one of the few listed localities for Bouvier's red colobus. Odzala National Park with the contiguous Lekoli-Pendaka Reserve and the Mboko Hunting Area (comprising a total of 2,830 km2) are included in the EU's ECOFAC project. A survey of all primates within the Odzala complex is under way. Ecological studies of gorillas and chimpanzees are also being conducted in the neighboring Ndoumbi-Lossi area (Bermejo 1994), together with a conservation education program.
Organizations involved: ACCP; EU/ECOFAC; GEF; GTZ; Howletts Port Lympne Foundation; Japanese government; USAID; WCS.
Problems encountered: Nouabale-Ndoki is almost entirely surrounded by logging concessions, without management for long term sustainability and with many roads. The Odzala protected area complex is subject to hunting particularly in the south and southwest. Political disorder in Congo in 1993, that could have threatened conservation work, has subsided for the moment.
Recommendations for the future: Existing projects should continue. A survey of the status of the bouvieri form of red colobus is still urgently needed; this should include a thorough survey of the Likouala swamps. More surveys near the Gabon border are needed.
14. Northeastern and Southwestern Gabon
Country: Gabon
Recommended action: Develop a reserve near the Congo-Cameroon border; establish best location and dimensions of a reserve. Also, more surveys needed in southwest Gabon.
A. Northeastern Gabon
What has been done: Zoological and botanical surveys have been conducted by Lahm, Wilks and others, which indicate that Minkébé is the best choice for a reserve in northeast Gabon. This area contains three primates found nowhere else in Gabon (Cercopithecus neglectus, Cercocebus galeritus and Colobus guereza) and may be one of the last sites where Colobus satanas and C. guereza co-occur.
Organizations involved: Institut de Recherche en Ecologie Tropicale, Gabon; Ministère des Eaux et Forêts, Gabon; WCS.
Problems encountered: Reduced support from WWF has left Minkébé relatively neglected. Minkébé is also burdened by a rush of gold panners and a recent forest development project may stimulate logging. The already established Ipassa-Makokou Biosphere Reserve (which has an ecological laboratory) is heavily used by hunters and trappers, and few large mammals are left, but a preliminary survey of the proposed Mingouli Reserve, south of Ipassa, has found a large area of undisturbed forest of high potential value for primate conservation.
Recommendations for the future: A reevaluation of Minkébé is needed to look at the effects of the recent human impact and its consequences for the establishment of an effective protected area. The Ipassa-Makokou Reserve should be extended to the south and its management improved.
B. Southwestern Gabon
What has been done: The Gamba Complex (including the Moukalaba and Petit Lango reserves and several “domaines de chasse”) are receiving special attention, with the goal of implementing an integrated conservation and development program, and creating an “area of rational exploitation of the fauna”; reserve headquarters have been constructed at Petit Loango.
Problems encountered: There has been a general lack of resources. Oil exploration is taking place in the area, and there is logging pressure.
Recommendations for the future: A more detailed survey is needed, and an environmental impact plan must be put in place to minimize damage from oil drilling.
15. Central African Republic
Country: Central African Republic
Recommended action: Assist development of lowland gorilla reserve in the far south.
What has been done: The Dzanga-Sangha Dense Forest Special Reserve and the Dzanga-Ndoki National Park have been established in the Sangha-Baere Prefecture, contiguous with Congo's Nouabale-Ndoki park. The protected area is currently being expanded by 600 km2 which will connect the southern border of the Dzanga sector to the northern border of the Ndoki sector. The conservation project is encouraging a diversification of research on other primates in the reserve. Long-term studies of gorillas and other mammals have been carried out since 1986 by Carroll, Fay, Remis and Goldsmith.
Organizations involved: GTZ; NGS; USAID; WB; WCS; WWF.
Undisturbed mature forest on the banks of the Lomako River, Zaire.
Scott McGraw
Problems encountered: Recently, logging permission has been renewed by the CAR government and logging has resumed in the Bayanga Region of the reserve.
Recommendations for the future: A new effort is needed to protect the Bangassou Forest, the northern limit of the range of Pan troglodytes troglodytes.
16. Lomako Forest
Country: Zaire
Recommended action: Development of a reserve, especially to protect Pan paniscus.
What has been done: A proposal was prepared for the establishment of a Strict Nature Reserve covering 3,800 km2 between the Lomako and Yekokora Rivers; this was submitted to IZCN in 1990 (Thompson-Handler et al. 1995). A survey by G. Hohmann and B. Fruth has confirmed the presence of bonobos at Bohua, north of the original bonobo study site at Ndele. Behavioral research on bonobos is continuing at both sites.
Organizations involved: Antwerp Zoo; CRSN; DAAD; DFG; IZCN; Max Planck Society; Munich University.
Problems encountered: Hunters using abandoned logging roads have been moving into the forest (especially to the east of Ndele), and farming has also been spreading. Diamond miners are starting to explore rivers in the area. The 1990 reserve proposal has not yet to be acted upon; political instability in Zaire has made central government ineffective, and many outside agencies are withholding support until such time as greater political and economic stability return.
Recommendations for the future: Press ahead with efforts to establish a protected area as soon as conditions allow; evaluate the present status of all primates in the area.
17. Survey of Wamba Area
Country: Zaire
Recommended action: Investigate status of Cercopithecus salongo (=C. dryas) and establish the best place for a Pan paniscus reserve.
What has been done: Kano and colleagues have established a provisional reserve for P. paniscus in the Wamba study area that has been recognized by the local government. Taxonomic study of C. salongo specimens from Wamba have shown their relationship to C. dryas (Colyn, Gautier-Hion & van den Audenaerde 1991).
Organizations involved: Kyoto University; Bonobo Protection and Conservation Fund (Georgia State University)
Problems encountered: There is a high human density in the area, with associated high levels of hunting and habitat loss; this will make establishment of a national park difficult. Researchers were forced to abandon the site for two years because of political instability. On their return in 1994 they found that some bonobos had been killed and eaten by people who had moved into the area from neighboring villages and who had no taboo against harming the animals.
Recommendations for the future: Reestablish research and conservation efforts, including conservation education.
18. Survey of Salonga National Park
Country: Zaire
Recommended action: Assess fauna and conservation needs. P. paniscus may be present.
What has been done: Research in Salonga National Park (36,000 km2) has been conducted by Gautier-Hion and others (see e.g., Gautier-Hion & Maisels 1994). Significant numbers of Pan paniscus were confirmed present in the northeastern sector of the park, and high densities of several other primates were found there, including P. badius tholloni, Colobus angolensis, Lophocebus aterrimus, and Allenopithecus nigroviridis. Cercopithecus dryas seems to occur near the park, but not within it. An ECOFAC project was to develop a field research station, but this plan has been delayed.
Organizations involved: EU/ECOFAC; FFPS; Ministère de l'Environnement, France; PTES; Royal Society/CNRS.
Problems encountered: Before the general problems facing Zaire caused research and conservation efforts to be suspended in 1991, hunting pressure on primates was low, at least in the northeast. Organized poaching of elephants was occurring, however. In the south, forest was being felled very close to the park and here hunting may be a greater problem. Protection of such a large park is a daunting task for an agency like IZCN which has few resources.
An Allen's swamp monkey (Allenopithecus nigroviridis) being offered for sale in Zaire. This species inhabits swamps and gallery forests in both Zaire and the Congo Republic.
Thomas F. Kulesa
The bonobo (Pan paniscus) occurs only in the forests south of the Congo River. This species is slightly smaller than its close relative, the common chimpanzee, and is an accomplished user of the high forest canopy. Logging concessions threaten its forest habitat.
Noel Badrian
Recommendations for the future: Research and conservation efforts should be revived as soon as conditions allow, after an assessment of the impact of events since 1991. The headwaters between the Tshuapa and the Lomela Rivers should be surveyed, as should the area between Lopori and Lomami rivers. Better guard salaries and equipment should be provided.
19. Lukenie-sankuru
Country: Zaire
Recommended action: Survey the area to assess status of Cercocebus galeritus chrysogaster; make recommendations for its conservation.
What has been done: J. Thompson has made surveys south of the Lukenie River, focused on Pan paniscus, but also paying attention to other primates. A bonobo study site has been established at Yasa, but C. g. chrysogaster has not been confirmed as present here.
Organizations involved: CRSN; Oxford University.
Problems encountered: Hunting pressure on monkeys and other large mammals is very heavy at Yasa. Local traditions protect bonobos, but these are ignored by recent migrants.
Recommendations for the future: This area still remains poorly known. Further surveys are required, to better establish the status of C. g. chrysogaster.
20. Northeastern Angola
Country: Angola
Recommended action: Survey this area and the adjacent area of southwest Zaire to assess the status of Lophocebus atterimus opdenboschi, Cercopithecus ascanius atrinasus, C. neglectus, Miopithecus talapoin and Colobus angolensis angolensis and make recommendations for their conservation.
What has been done: no actions known.
Organizations involved: none known.
Problems encountered: The political situation in Angola and Zaire has mitigated against this project.
Recommendations for the future: Conduct survey as soon as conditions allow.
21. Ituri Forest Survey
Country: Zaire
Recommended action: Assess distribution and status of primates and make conservation recommendations (especially for Cercopithecus hamlyni and C. lhoesti). Compare primate populations in different forest types. Initiate primate field research program.
What has been done: The Okapi Faunal Reserve (13,000 km2) was gazetted in May 1992; it covers 20% of the Ituri Forest. Some primate censuses were made in 1986; 13 species of anthropoid primates were found, including Cercopithecus hamlyni and C. lhoesti. Ecological research on sympatric Colobus angolensis and C. guereza was conducted by Bocian in 1992–94, together with primate censuses in different forest types.
Organizations involved: IZCN; NSF; USAID; WCS; WWF.
Problems encountered: There has been resistance to the reserve by some local communities.
Recommendations for the future: A thorough study of Cercopithecus hamlyni, including its distribution and status, is still needed, and a chimpanzee census would contribute to the continent-wide picture. Conservation planning must take account of the increasing number of people living in and around the park and address the problem of immigration.
22. Maiko Survey
Country: Zaire
Recommended action: Survey Maiko National Park and N. Walikali/W. Lutunguru areas to the south of Ituri, especially for eastern lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla graueri). Develop management recommendations.
Lenda research camp in the Ituri Forest, Zaire. The Ituri has the most species-rich monkey fauna in the world. Cercopithecus hamlyni occurs in the Gilbertiodendron forest at Lenda.
John F. Oates
What has been done: Surveys of large mammals in Maiko have been conducted by Hart and Sikubwabo (1994). A new WCS project began in 1994 and will focus on G. g. graueri and other large mammals.
Organizations involved: BRD; IZCN; WCS.
Problems encountered: The Kisangani-Bukavu Road which passes close to Maiko National Park has been partially rehabilitated. It will facilitate exploitation of the southern sections of the forest. A community of rebels in Maiko presents a security threat.
Recommendations for the future: Development management recommendations and provide support to IZCN to improve protection of the park.
23. Kahuzi-biega Conservation
Country: Zaire
Recommended action: Improve protection of this national park, important for eastern lowland gorillas, G. g. graueri. Restructure tourist program to lessen disturbance to gorillas.
What has been done: Guard forces are being trained, equipped and compensated. An integrated conservation and development project emphasizes increasing public awareness and visitation to the park. Four groups of gorillas are habituated for tourism in the eastern part of the park. Gorillas were censused in the original 600 km2 montane sector in 1989 (Yamigawa et al. 1992, 1993). A census of primates in the park was conducted by Hall and others in the low-lying park extension in 1994; gorilla densities were found to be higher than expected (around 5,000 animals) and Cercopithecus hamlyni was found to be relatively common, but hunting pressure was also found to be intense.
Organizations involved: BRD; GTZ; IZCN; WCS.
Problems encountered: A new highway (the Kisangani-Bukavu Road) is planned to pass through Kahuzi-Biega, but the plan has been suspended, at least for the time being. Human population density is high near the park boundaries, and the vulnerable corridor between the original montane sector and its eastern extension has been damaged by tree-cutting, cattle encroachment and hunting.
Recommendations for the future: There is an urgent need to define agreed park boundaries (they are currently disputed). A conservation project should be established in the park extension. Protection must be improved. There should be regular monitoring of primate populations.
24. Survey of the Republic of Guinea
Country: Guinea (also Guinea-Bissau, Senegal and The Gambia)
Recommended action: Survey primate populations and develop reserves to protect Papio papio, the temminckii form of red colobus, and Pan troglodytes verus.
What has been done: A questionnaire survey of the distribution and population of chimpanzees in Guinea by Sugiyama & Soumah (1988) suggests a probable population decline. Chimpanzees and Diana monkeys were reported heard but not seen in a survey of the 50 km2 Kounounkan Massif in southwest Guinea in 1992; no evidence of red colobus was obtained (Barnett et al. 1994).
There has been a chimpanzee survey by Gippoliti and Dell'Omo (1994) in neighboring Guinea-Bissau, which is part of the Casamance-Fouta Djalon area of concern highlighted in the original plan; the Cacine Basin (particularly the Cantanhez Forest) was identified as an important site for conservation of both chimpanzees and Procolobus badius temminckii.
In Niokolo Koba National Park in southeastern Senegal, adjacent to Guinea, Galat et al. (1992) estimated a population of 140,000–240,000 Papio papio but found only two groups of P. b. temminckii.
Organizations involved: Direction des Eaux ets Forêts, Guinea; DPNS; CECI; IUCN; ORSTOM.
Problems encountered: In Guinea, Guinea-Bissau and southern Senegal, remaining closed-canopy forest is apparently being rapidly reduced. In Guinea, chimpanzee populations close to the Liberian and Sierra Leone borders appear to have been affected by poaching. The Basse Casamance National Park has been devastated by civil war and has been closed since 1993 (Burnham 1993).
Recommendations for the future: Conduct more detailed investigations into the status of primates in Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, and work to establish one or more national or similar protected areas parks (including, perhaps, one in the Cacine Basin) to conserve representative areas of natural forest; evaluate the possibility of a transfrontier protected area between Guinea and Guinea-Bissau. In Guinea, assess the importance to primates of the recently-gazetted Bodior National Park. In Senegal, survey the Forêt de Fathala (76 km2) in the Delta du Saloum National Park; this forest protects the most northerly population of of P. b. temminckii.
Mixed oak-forest habitat of the Barbary macaque in north Morocco.
John E. Fa
25. Barbary Macaque Conservation
Country: Morocco, Algeria
Recommended action: Study human impacts on remaining Macaca sylvanus populations; support establishment of a national parks system in Morocco and reinforce existing Algerian system; study the possibility of translocating animals to Tunisia.
What has been done: Macaque genetics, behavior and population dynamics have been studied by Gautier-Hion and Ménard in Algeria, where macaques and their habitat are protected in the Djurdjura, Gouraya, Taza and Chréa National Parks. Surveys by Fa and Mehlman in 1990–92 in Morocco found conflict between cedar forest managers and macaques, which are viewed as pests because of their bark-stripping. The reintroduction of Macaca sylvanus to Tunisia has been explored by Gilbert de Turkheim.
Organizations involved: Agence Nationale pour la Conservation de la Nature, Algeria; Dep. des Eaux et Forêts, Morocco; Ministère Français de l'Environnement; La Montagne des Singes; Universities of Göttingen, Minnesota, Rennes and Zurich; Université de Tizi-Ouzou, Algeria; Yemassee Primate Center.
Problems encountered: In Algeria, forest fires, logging and livestock grazing in macaque habitats are a problem, and some young animals are captured for sale as pets. Insurgency has interrupted studies in Algeria and outside support has been suspended since September 1993. In Morocco, macaque habitats are under threat from illegal logging and overgrazing by large numbers of sheep and goats; the problem is exacerbated by drought. Moroccan forestry authorities have considered culling macaques because of their bark stripping.
Recommendations for the future: In Morocco, macaque protection must be integrated into national biodiversity conservation plans; further population surveys are needed, and the bark-stripping problem thoroughly investigated. The Algerian work should be resumed as soon as the political situation allows, and a study of human impact on macaque populations is still needed; national park protection must be made more effective. A concerted strategy for the captive and wild macaque populations must be developed.
26. Management of Okomu Forest
Country: Nigeria
Recommended action: Assist establishment of a wildlife sanctuary. Conduct a management study.
What has been done: The Okomu Wildlife Sanctuary was gazetted within the Okomu Forest Reserve in 1985, and extended in 1990. NCF has been running the Okomu Forest Project and has constructed a permanent station; the project has emphasized protection of the sanctuary but is also involved in the development of a conservation program. A socioeconomic survey of people in the reserve has been conducted. A census of primate populations has shown a healthy population of Cercopithecus erythrogaster and confirmed the probable presence of chimpanzees.
The Nigerian white-throated guenon, Cercopithecus erythrogaster, photographed at Okomu, Nigeria. This species has one of the most restricted distributions of all African primates, and its remaining populations are under intense pressure.
Noel Rowe
Organizations involved: Edo State Government; Ford Foundation; NCF; ODA; PTES; WCS.
Problems encountered: The reserve around the wildlife sanctuary is being degraded by conversion to oil-palm and rubber plantations, and to farmland. Current plans for agricultural-development assistance to immigrant farmers already resident in the reserve seriously threaten the integrity of the reserve and endanger the Wildlife Sanctuary. Federal and state governments have not demonstrated a strong commitment to the protection of Okomu and it has been neglected by the international conservation community.
Recommendations for the future: More effective conservation in the Forest Reserve outside the Wildlife Sanctuary needs to be developed urgently. Management should emphasize sustainable forestry rather than farming. Establishment of a management committee with community, state and NGO participation would probably be helpful. Trust fund mechanisms to support Okomu should be investigated and a program of scientific research established.
27. Ondo and Ogun Survey
Country: Nigeria
Recommended action: Survey the two states to investigate the status of C. erythrogaster and other primates; prepare management recommendations.
Omo Forest Reserve in Ogun State has been the site of research and conservation activities by the private Nigerian Forest Elephant conservation group. This project has established a base camp and conducted primate censuses. An originally small strictly protected area has been extended. Cercopithecus erythrogaster is present.
Organizations involved: Nigerian Federal University of Technology, Akure; NFE; Ogun and Ondo State Governments.
Problems encountered: Intensified logging is a problem in Omo and other forest reserves in southwest Nigeria. Like Okomu, these areas suffer from a lack of interest on the part of the international community.
Recommendations for the future: Support the development of an effective protected area for primates and other forest wildlife in Ondo; also support better protection of Omo and continuing research there.
28. Niger-cross Survey
Country: Nigeria
Recommended action: Survey area between Niger and Cross Rivers to determine the distribution and status of Cercopithecus sclateri; recommend conservation measures. Consider better protection for relic populations of Procolobus verus.
What has been done: Surveys have located eight populations of C. sclateri, two of which occur entirely or in part in existing Forest Reserves, and two of which are in villages where the monkey is sacred (Oates et al. 1992). In one of the Forest Reserves, Stubbs Creek, the Nigerian Conservation Foundation has initiated a conservation project in collaboration with the Akwa Ibom State Government. In the village of Akpugoeze C. sclateri have been censused and a pilot study of behavior and ecology has taken place; first steps towards establishing a conservation education program have been taken.
A P. verus population has been found to survive in the Taylor Creek area of Rivers State, where a preliminary survey has been conducted and a conservation project has been proposed.
Organizations involved: Enugu State Government; Rivers State Government; Mobil Producing Nigeria; NCF; NGS; WCS; WWF-US.
Problems encountered: Between the Niger and the Cross, very little natural forest remains and the remnants are under intense pressure. Except in villages where they are considered sacred, monkeys are heavily hunted and even in these villages traditions are beginning to lapse, threatening the monkeys' future. The Stubbs Creek project has made little progress, and there has been little enthusiasm on the part of national or international NGO's to give major assistance to conservation in this area.
Juvenile Sclater's guenon (Cercopithecus sclateri). This endangerd monkey, related to Cercopithecus erythrotis, has a very restricted distribution in eastern Nigeria.
Noel Rowe
Recommendations for the future: Work for lasting protection of the remaining populations of C. sclateri, and determine the limits to its distribution in the eastern Niger Delta, where it appears to meet C. erythrogaster. Revive the Stubbs Creek conservation project. Support the establishment of a protected area or areas near Taylor Creek where, in addition to olive colobus, a population of the Nigerian subspecies of pygmy hippotamus (once considered extinct) may still survive. Extend conservation efforts to the central Niger Delta (see New Projects, page 58).
Logs from Hallea trees felled in the habitat of the Niger delta red colobus monkey await a tow to sawmills in the Nigerian capital, Lagos.
John F. Oates
29. Bwindi Forest Conservation
Country: Uganda
Recommended action: Support more effective conservation, including the establishment of a series of nature reserves or a national park, and extension of boundaries; establish a research station.
What has been done: The Impenetrable Forest Conservation Project (IFCP) was initiated in 1986, leading to the gazettement of the Bwindi-Impenetrable Forest National Park in 1992, and the establishment of a buffer zone. The IFCP has now become the Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation (ITFC). A management plan for the park has been completed and biological inventory, multiple-use conservation, education, tourism development, agroforestry, and family planning programs are now in place. Ugandan students are being trained, park staff and guards have been equipped, and illegal activities in the park have been reduced. A detailed gorilla census has been completed (about 320 animals are present) and gorilla tourism started in April 1993. To sustain the park in the long-term the Bwindi-Impenetrable Forest Conservation Trust and a tourism revenue sharing program are being established (see Butynski & Kalina 1993).
The Bwindi Forest Reserve of southwestern Uganda (once known as the Impenetrable Forest) contains a significant population of mountain gorillas as well as a high diversity of other primates.
Russell A. Mittermeier
Organizations involved: BRD; CARE; Embassies of Canada, Germany and USA; FFI; GEF; IPPL; ITFC; Makerere University; UNP; USAID; WWF-International and WWF-US.
Problems encountered: High local human population density still threatens the forest. Four gorillas were killed by poachers in the park in March 1995. There is pressure from tour operators to expand the gorilla tourism program to a level that might be damaging. There are inadequate fire-control measures. Park administration here and elsewhere in Uganda can be improved.
Recommendations for the future: More data on the ecology and population biology of the gorilla population should be gathered, and the impact of tourism on the gorillas must be monitored. The scope of the tourism program should be expanded to include bird watching, nature walks and nocturnal walks, but one view is that gorilla tourism should be limited to two groups because of the potential threat to the animals and because of the management problems an expansion of this component would cause. Multiple-use and revenue sharing programs need to be refined; the buffer zone needs further development. The Trust Fund should be enhanced and a gorilla disease-risk assessment conducted.
30. Virunga Volcanoes
Countries: Rwanda, Uganda, Zaire
Recommended action: Improve protection, especially of Uganda and Zaire areas; continue support for mountain gorilla project; investigate status of the golden monkey (Cercopithecus mitis kandti).
What has been done: The Mountain Gorilla Project evolved into the International Gorilla Conservation Programme (IGCP) in 1990, serving Rwanda, Zaire and Uganda.
The Mgahinga Game Sanctuary (Uganda) was gazetted as the Mgahinga Gorilla National Park status in 1992. A gorilla conservation project started at Mgahinga in 1989; activities include: ecological surveys (including a gorilla census), reclamation of encroached land, and boundary demarcation; rangers have been trained and equipped and nearly all illegal activities stopped; tourism has begun (see Butynski & Kalina 1993).
The Zaire Gorilla Conservation Project has combined logistic assistance to the Parc National des Virungas with the development of tourism based on gorilla viewing. This has brought good income to the government park plus surveillance both for the large area in which the gorillas are viewed and for the smaller Tongo area where chimpanzees are viewed.
Until the invasion of Rwanda in late 1990 by rebel forces, conservation management in Rwanda's Parc National des Volcans was proceeding very smoothly, with reduced levels of poaching, high revenue from tourism, a research program at the Karisoke Research Center, and the continuation of education projects. In 1988, Volcano Veterinary Center was established to monitor the health of habituated gorilla groups and to advise on the tourism program.
A distributional survey of C. m. kandti in Rwanda and Zaire was conducted in 1987–88 and identified the Virungas as the major remaining habitat for the subspecies.
Organizations involved: AWF; BRD; CARE; Centre for International Migration and Development; Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund; EU; FFI; FZS; GEF; Gorman Animal Protection Society; IGCP; ITFC; IZCN; Morris Animal Foundation; Office Rwandaise du Tourisme et des Parc Nationaux; UNP; USAID; WWF-International and US.
Problems encountered: Twice since 1990, researchers and staff have been forced to leave the Karisoke Research Center because of the conflicts in Rwanda; the gorillas in the Rwandan Parc National des Volcans were apparently unharmed by the war in 1994, but the Karisoke station was damaged, illegal cattle grazing appears to have increased, and land mines were planted in the park; as of early 1995, periodic incursions of militias into the park from Zaire were still a problem, but mines were being cleared and tourism had recommenced. In 1994, almost one million refugees from Rwanda established camps close to the southern sector of the Virunga National Park in Zaire and have been heavily exploiting it for fuelwood; armed gangs of poachers are plundering the park for duikers and monkeys. Meanwhile, political and economic instability in Zaire since 1991 have resulted in a decline in park management and tourist operations and a withdrawal of most outside financial and technical support.
The Virunga volcanoes viewed from southwestern Uganda. Intensive cultivation around the bases and on the slopes of the volcanoes in Uganda and Rwanda has greatly restricted the habitat available to mountain gorillas and severed the link between the gorillas of Bwindi and the Virungas.
John F. Oates
Recommendations for the future: The relatively very small size of the Virunga gorilla population (around 300 animals) means that continual monitoring and close protection are required; political developments have made this difficult. A general long-term problem requiring attention is the level and nature of tourism in the Virungas; further studies are needed to assess the most appropriate strategy for each area, considering numbers of visitors and regulations of their conduct (for instance, there are reports of tourists being allowed to play with young, and infectious diseases may be spreading from humans to gorillas). There is also scope for improved conservation awareness programs, and revenue sharing programs between the parks and the local people. Further genetic and taxonomic work is required to establish the relationships of the Virunga and Bwindi gorillas.
More baseline data are needed on the distribution, size and composition of the golden monkey population.
31. Kibale Forest Conservation
Country: Uganda
Recommended action: Increase effectiveness of conservation measures, upgrade conservation status, and continue ecological and management studies.
What has been done: The forest was upgraded to a Conservation Forest within the Forest Department in 1992, and to a Forest National Park in 1994. A major field research station, the Makerere University Biological Field Station, has been established at Kanyawara. A range of ecological studies have continued, including Pan troglodytes socioecology, monkey frugivory, and a survey of nocturnal primates. Buffer zone management and community outreach are being developed. An ecotourism project began in 1992 and is attracting up to 500 visitors per month.
Organizations involved: EU; Makerere University; Uganda Forest Department; UNP; USAID; WCS.
Problems encountered: There is still some encroachment by farmers, especially in the southern part of the forest, though it has been greatly reduced since 1992. Settlers engage in snaring, net-hunting and tree poaching.
Recommendations for the future: Kibale is now the site of some of the longest-ever field studies of forest primates and these studies should continue, as should education, agroforestry and tourism programs. The field station needs to develop long-term financial independence and should emphasize the training of Ugandan professionals.
The Kibale Forest, Uganda, site of a major ecological study of rain forest primates since 1970. It's status was upgraded to Forest National Park in 1994.
John F. Oates
32. Nyungwe-kibira Conservation
Countries: Rwanda, Burundi
Recommended action: Support conservation work in these contiguous forests. Increase legal protection of Nyungwe; survey Kibira, especially for the presence of the tephrosceles form of red colobus, and improve its protection.
A. Nyungwe (Rwanda)
What has been done: A conservation plan for the Nyungwe Forest Reserve and its primates has been produced, reviewed, and partially implemented. Some biological inventory work has been conducted there have been studies of Cercopithecus lhoesti, C. mitis doggetti, Lophocebus albigena and Colobus angolensis. Cercopithecus hamlyni has been observed in the forest and C. mitis kandti may be present. Tourism and public awareness programs have been initiated.
Organizations involved: EU; FED; USAID; WCS; WB.
Problems encountered: The political turmoil in Rwanda disrupted management, research and tourism at Nyungwe; some outside assistance is currently suspended. Previous to this turmoil, the forest had been been disturbed by bamboo cutting and gold-mining, and demographic and development pressures remain a potential threat to the forest, especially if there is a large-scale return of refugees. There has been insufficient collaboration between Kibira and Nyungwe due to political problems and lack of means.
Recommendations for the future: Research and management efforts are now being revived. Research should include studies of the impact of proposed management. Better information on the distribution and density throughout Nyungwe of all primate species is needed. There is a need to transfer expertise to Rwandan biologists and conservationists.
B. Kibira (Burundi)
What has been done: The U.S. Peace Corps is collaborating with INECN. Chimpanzee censuses have been conducted, and a tourism plan is being developed. It appears that red colobus are not present.
Organizations involved: JGI; USAID; USPC.
Problems encountered: There is a lack of collaboration between Kibira and Nyungwe. Protection is threatened by cutting of bamboo and gold-mining, by growing political instability, and by an influx of refugees into the area from Rwanda. In 1995 it was reported that the Burundi military were bombing and burning the forest to chase out rebel forces.
Recommendations for the future: Reevaluate status of forest as soon as conditions allow. Better knowledge of the overall distribution and density of primate populations is required.
33. Gombe National Park
Country: Tanzania
Recommended action: Continue monitoring of the park and its chimpanzees.
What has been done: The very long-term study chimpanzees has continued. The northern community of chimpanzees has been habituated for tourism and some research. A study of predation on red colobus by chimpanzees, and of red colobus feeding, ecology and demography is in progress. There has been a plant species inventory and vegetation mapping.
Organizations involved: JGI; NSF; TANAPA.
Problems encountered: The human population along the shore of Lake Tanganyika has increased year by year, and there has been minor wood cutting and timber poaching in the margins of the park; occasional uncontrolled fires in the late dry season are also a problem. Tourist groups occasionally disturb chimpanzees; there is a danger of disease transmission from humans to the small chimpanzee population. The small size of the park threatens its longterm effectiveness.
Recommendations for the future: The feasibility of reducing numbers of fisherman with compensation for an alternative livelihood should be explored. The size and behavior of tourist groups should be better controlled. Further research on disease transmission among humans, chimpanzees and baboons would be useful.
34. Western Rift of Zaire
Country: Zaire
Recommended action: Survey forests from Beni to Bujumbura. Assess needs for protection.
What has been done: Gorilla surveys were conducted by Aveling on Mt. Tschiaberimu (Parc National des Virungas) in 1985 and 1987, and by Butynski in 1995; Butynski concluded that 16–18 gorillas were still present. In 1991, Hall and Wathaut made a reconnaissance of much of the historical range of G. g. graueri (including the Itombwe Forest), and in 1993 Sikubwabu undertook two surveys of forest patches near Fizi (south of Bujumbura).
Organizations involved: IUCN; IZCN; WCS.
Problems encountered: The area between Beni and Bukavu is densely populated. Although most of the montane ecosystems north of Bukavu have legally protected status, transitional and midaltitudinal forests are severely degraded and threatened. Mt. Tschiaberimu has been encroached by agriculture and damaged by pit-sawing and gold mining. The mountain forests of Itombwe are severely threatened on slopes adjacent to Lake Tanganyika; an IUCN/IZCN project to develop and implement a community managed protected area met initial success but has halted for lack of funds. Rwandan and Burundian refugees have taken up residence in areas adjacent to Itombwe, Kahuzi-Biega and the Virunga National Park and will pose an additional threat for many years to come.
Recommendations for the future: The Itombwe and Tschiaberimu forests and their gorilla populations deserve urgent attention. Resources should be mobilized urgently to mitigate the problems posed by the refugee influx. The possibility of better protection of montane forest remnants near Lutunguru (inhabited by red colobus) needs to be explored.
35. Mahale Mountains Park Management
Country: Tanzania
Recommended action: Assist development and management, including establishment of more effective antipoaching patrols.
What has been done: Studies of chimpanzee behavior and ecology, and of other fauna and flora and fauna have continued. There is a thriving ecotourism operation, and a new community of chimpanzees is being habituated for viewing by tourists.
Organizations involved: Japanese Ministry of Education, Science and Culture; JICA; Kyoto University; TANAPA.
The chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). Africa's great apes, the chimpanzees and the gorilla, are the closest living relatives of the human species.
G. Teleki
Problems encountered: A large fishing settlement inside the park boundary is causing serious damage to vegetation. About 10 chimpanzees died of a flu-like disease in 1993, which might have been acquired from tourists; tourists are often allowed too close to the animals and this is not sufficiently discouraged by park managers.
Recommendations for the future: Settlements inside the park should be relocated. Primate studies should be continued, and extended to other species. More anti-poaching patrols are recommended, especially in the eastern part of the park. The size and behavior of tourist groups should be better controlled and the scope of the tourism program expanded to include bird watching and mountain climbing; training of guides should be improved. Further research on human-chimpanzee disease transmission is desirable. Conservation management should be extended to the Kasakati-Ugalla area which can play an important role as a buffer zone for the park.
36. Simien Mountains Conservation
Country: Ethiopia
Recommended action: Provide better protection for Simien Mountains National Park, important for Theropithecus gelada and Colobus guereza guereza.
What has been done: Studies of gelada have continued at intervals. A UNESCO emergency grant for park rehabilitation has been awarded (it is a World Heritage site).
An adult male gelada (Theropithecus gelada). His muzzle has been wounded in a fight with another male over control of a reproductive unit.
R. I. M. Dunbar
Organizations involved: EWCO; Kyoto University; Pro-Simen Fund (Switzerland); Unesco; WWF-International.
Problems encountered: Two decades of war caused major damage to management infrastructures, and tourist visits are destroying the road leading to the park.
Recommendations for the future: There appears to be no up-to-date information on the status of Colobus guereza in the park; that information would be worth collecting. Research on human needs and impact in the area is recommended; the local comunity should be more involved in ecotourism.
37. Bale Mountains
Country: Ethiopia
Recommended action: Assess feasibility of translocating gelada breeding groups to proposed Bale Mountains National Park. Work for better protection of the park.
What has been done: A management plan has been produced for the park. Gelada have been discovered in the eastern highlands of Ethiopia, in the Indeltu area. Cercopithecus aethiops djamdjamensis and a population of Colobus guereza of uncertain affinities have been found in the Harenna forest in the southern part of the Bale National Park; anubis baboons and Galago senegalensis also occur in the park (Carpaneto & Gippoliti 1990).
Organizations involved: EWCO and Ethiopian Government; WCS; WWF-Italy.
Problems encountered: The Bale National Park receives an inadequate budget to implement the management plan.
Recommendations for the future: Translocation of geladas to the Bale Mountains has been judged inappropriate, not only because geladas have been found in the Indeltu area, but also because Bale has very little cliff habitat. Instead, additional gelada conservation efforts should be focused on the newly-discovered Wabe Shebelle gorge Indeltu population. At Bale, there is a continuing need to work for better protection of the park system and its surroundings, with more attention to addressing the needs of local people. Following the political turmoil of 1991, settlement occurred in some areas of the park. The Harenna forest suffered from timber poaching and uncontrolled fires. The status of Cercopithecus aethiops djamdjamensis and Colobus guereza in the Bale Mountains needs further investigation.
38. Harrar Survey
Country: Ethiopia
Colobus guereza in the Harenna Forest, Ethiopia. The taxonomic affinities of the Harenna population are unclear.
S. Gippoliti
Recommended action: Locate additional conservation areas for Papio hamadryas and Colobus guereza gallarum.
What has been done: No known action.
Organizations involved: EWCO.
Problems encountered: There is no key person or group involved in this area. Large numbers of refugees from the Somali conflict have moved into and out of the area successively over the past decades. The area is very impoverished.
Recommendations for the future: There is a need to find an interested individual or organization to work in this area, which is now becoming more peaceful. A broad conservation approach is needed, not just focusing on primates. A new regional government might be expected to be supportive from pride in its own conservation area.
39. Tana River Research
Country: Kenya
Recommended action: Establish a research station in the Tana River Primate National Reserve. Monitor population trends in red colobus (Procolobus badius rufomitratus) and mangabeys (Cercocebus galeritus galeritus); assess forest regeneration.
What has been done: Permanent camps for students, scientists and park guards have been completed. Several population surveys of the red colobus and mangabeys have been conducted as well as other basic research on primate ecology, forest ecology and human impact. Protection has been improved and community activities initiated. A GEF proposal is under consideration that covers park management, community development, and research and monitoring.
A 1994 survey (Butynski & Mwangi 1994) is the most comprehensive so far. It found that more monkeys may survive in the lower Tana forests than had been estimated previously; the new estimates are 1,100–1,300 red colobus and 1,000–1,200 crested mangabeys. A majority of the red colobus population occurs outside the National Reserve; Mnazini East and Kinyadu West forests are particularly important for red colobus and Nkanjonja for mangabeys. Cercopithecus albogularis albotorquatus was found to be relatively widespread and common, with an estimated 3,000 individuals in the lower Tana forests.
Organizations involved: AWF; EAWS; Emory University; GEF; KIPR; KWS; NMK; NSF; Tana River Management Committee; WCS; WWF; Zoo Atlanta.
Problems encountered: Although some ecological research has suggested that the Tana forest is becoming senescent from natural causes, recent studies by Decker (1994b) and by Butynski & Mwangi shows that the biggest immediate threats to the habitat are forest clearing by farmers, fires, and tree-cutting for canoes and honey. High levels of banditry (there are Shiftas on the east bank of the Tana) threaten the security of residents and researchers, and have resulted in most local people living on the west bank of the river (some of them in the reserve). The west bank forests are therefore under most pressure, and arrests of people infringing reserve regulations have created strained relations with wildlife authorities. There is a plan for a new dam on the upper Tana River which would impound four years' flow and greatly affect the flood regime in the Primate National Reserve.
Recommendations for the future: The new red colobus and mangabey population estimates need to be confirmed by further surveys. The finding that 44% of mangabey groups and 63% of red colobus groups occur outside the National Reserve shows the great importance of extending conservation measures to non-reserve forests. Butynski & Mwangi (1994) suggest firebreaks, tree plantations and the introduction of different canoe management or construction practices. In the reserve itself there is a continuing need to monitor the flora and fauna, and the impact (on the primates especially) of human agricultural activities, upstream development works, and climate change. A long-term plan for red colobus and mangabey management should be developed; this might consider translocation of monkeys presently outside the reserve into unpopulated forest patches inside, and the establishment of corridors between forest patches; genetic studies would be a useful component of this plan. There is a need to resettle as many reserve residents as possible through voluntary means; community awareness, education and extension activities should be encouraged. A buffer zone policy needs to be developed, reserve infrastructure should improved and tourism developed; there should be no reduction in the size of the reserve. The plan for a new dam on the upper Tana should be opposed.
40. Kenya Coast Survey
Country: Kenya
Recommended action: Survey remaining coastal forest, especially Boni and Arabuko-Sokoke; make management recommendations.
What has been done: Arabuko-Sokoke was re-surveyed in 1991; five primate species are present, including Cercopithecus albogularis albotorquatus and Galago zanzibaricus. A management plan is being drawn up and a large-scale conservation program has been approved.
Organizations involved: Kenya Forest Department; KIF-CON; KWS; NMK; ODA.
Problems encountered: The more northerly forests are currently unsafe to visit because of Shifta activity. South of Mombasa, coastal forest still contains Colobus angolensis, but serious degradation of the forest habitat continues here.
Recommendations for the future: Implement management plan for Sokoke-Arabuko. Further habitat surveys of more northerly forests (particularly Witu, Dodori and Boni) would be useful, and could be initiated with a remote sensing study. The remaining southern forests require stringent management to conserve remaining forest areas. The status of Colobus angolensis needs to be assessed.
Cercopithecus albogularis albotorquatus, a subspecies of Sykes' monkey restricted to the coastal forests of northern kenya and southern Somalia.
Russell A. Mittermeier
Zanzibar red colobus (Procolobus badius kirkii).
Thomas T. Struhsaker
41. Zanzibar Conservation
Country: Tanzania
Recommended action: Protect red colobus populations; increase area protected by Jozani Forest Reserve and upgrade it to a national park; give better protection to the Muyuni coastal forest strip and Uzi Island; monitor translocated populations.
What has been done: There has been new ecological research on the red colobus in the Jozani area, and plans have been drawn up for an island-wide survey of the monkey.
Organizations involved: CI; FINNIDA; NGS.
Problems encountered: In Jozani, habitat degradation from commercial logging, agriculture, tree-cutting for fuelwood and charcoal production have been problems; logging has now stopped, but hunting has become more common. Removal of habitat outside Jozani is greatly exceeding regeneration.
Recommendations for the future: There is still a need to upgrade Jozani Forest Reserve to national park status. A management plan for the reserve needs to be agreed, and this should consider the demarcation of boundaries, the establishment of a research station, and the development of an adjacent buffer zone. Tourism needs to be developed and better organized, both in the reserve and on private land outside the reserve; for instance, walkways should be built in critical areas of the reserve where tourist trampling is damaging the vegetation. Outside Jozani, a new island-wide survey of red colobus is needed, and the existing Forestry Act should be enforced.
42. Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania
Country: Tanzania
Recommended action: Improve protection of the mountains and their endemic red colobus and mangabey populations; support plans to gazette W. Kilombero, Mwanihana and Udzungwa scarp forests as a National Park; assist better management of the non-contiguous Magombera Forest (which also contains red colobus); support continued research on the primate community.
What has been done: Approximately 3,000 km2 of the Udzungwa Mountains were gazetted as a National Park in 1992. A survey of Magombera has been conducted by Decker (1994a) and produced an estimate of 544 red colobus remaining there as well as finding red colobus in other nearby forest patches.
Organizations involved: GTZ; Selous Conservation Programme; Tanzania National Parks; WCS; WWF.
Problems encountered:Procolobus badius gordonorum appears to prefer low elevation forest habitat, which is also the area of greatest human disturbance in Magombera and the Udzungwas. The Udzungwas are difficult to patrol and the red colobus are hunted. Since 1980 the Magombera Forest has been reduced from 11 km2 to 6 km2 and is threatened with clear-felling for fuelwood by a neighboring sugar plantation.
Recommendations for the future: The Magombera Forest has still not been formally gazetted into the Selous Game Reserve; this should be done immediately. Better patrolling is needed in both Magombera and the Udzungwas. Pressure on Magombera might be reduced by the creation of woodlots on village land and a firebreak around the forest. A long-term study of Cercocebus galeritus “sanjei” and P. b. gordonorum and their habitat is needed. Further surveys are needed to better understand the distribution and status of red colobus in forests south of Magombera and to guide management plans for the Selous Game Reserve and the Kilombero Game Controlled Area.
Table 4 and Figure 1 summarize the outcomes of the 42 groups of projects recommended in the original African primate Action Plan. Some or all of the actions recommended in the plan were taken in 38 (90.5%) of projects, but in 10 of these cases civil war or similar political instability has prevented the fulfillment of conservation objectives, and some degree of unrest or insurgency has had an impact on many other projects. The recommended survey of Angola has not been possible because of the state of civil war existing there for much of the time since the last plan was published. Political instability is unfortunately an increasing threat to the effective implementation of conservation programs in Africa.
Figure 1 Summary of outcomes of projects reviewed in this chapter (see Table 4 for details).
Table 4 Outcomes of Projects Listed in 1986 Action Plan
Key
a Countries: ALG Algeria, BUR Burundi, CAM Cameroon, CAR Central African Republic, CON Congo, EQG Equatorial Guinea, ETH Ethiopia, GAB Gabon, GHA Ghana, GUI Guinea, IVC Ivory Coast, KEN Kenya, LIB Liberia, MOR Morocco, NIG Nigeria, RWA Rwanda, SLE Sierra Leone, TAN Tanzania, TUN Tunisia, UGA Uganda, ZAI Zaire.
b Priority ratings in original plan.
c Outcomes: 1 = Most or all project objectives achieved, at least in the short term; 2 = Project objectives only partly achieved (but civil unrest not largely responsible for this); 3 = Little or no progress in achieving objectives (but civil unrest is not largely responsible for this); 4 = Some progress made in achieving objectives, but war, civil unrest or political instability has interfered with the project; 5 = Little or no progress made, and civil war/unrest make progress unlikely in the near future.
d [rdm] reserve development/management project
e Security is a problem