Considered here are species with a threat rating of 3 or 4 in Table 3, that is, species regarded as Vulnerable or Endangered. Also included are the most threatened forms of red colobus monkeys, several of which are regarded as distinct species in some classifications.
This is a revised version of the information that appeared in the first edition of the African primate action plan. The original information was provided by the IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, England, and it has been updated by J. Fa, A. Harcourt, J. Moore, G. Reinertz, T. Struhsaker, L. White and the compiler. The maps were drawn by Stephen Nash.
Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus)
Status: Once widespread throughout North Africa, it is now restricted to small patches of forest and scrub in northern Morocco and Algeria. A small feral population also occurs in Gilbraltar. Population estimates vary between 9,000 and about 24,000, and 75% of the wild population occurs in the Middle Atlas, Morocco. It feeds eclectically and lives in multi-male groups which vary in size between areas. Numbers have declined dramatically in the past 50 years due mainly to habitat destruction. Even though populations occur in for National Parks in Algeria, these parks suffer from significant human impact. Remaining areas of macaque habitat require much stricter protection. The Barbary macaque breeds well in captivity and plans have been formulated to reintroduce surplus stock to areas where it occurred previously but is now extinct.
Drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus)
Status: The species is semi-terrestrial with a flexible social organization, small units occasionally joining to form groups of up to 200 animals. Distribution of the drill is still uncertain, but it appears to have a very restricted distribution in western Cameroon, southeastern Nigeria and Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea). Numbers in Nigeria and Bioko have undoubtedly declined in recent years due to excessive hunting. Populations are theoretically protected within the Korup National Park, Cameroon, and the Cross River National Park, Nigeria, but hunting still occurs in these areas. On Bioko, the species is still found in good numbers in the southern part of the island, which is nominally a protected zone. In all areas, drills are threatened by loss of forest habitat as well as by hunting. Surveys are in progress, but need to be completed, to determine the distribution of viable populations in Cameroon outside Korup, and immediate protection is necessary in Bioko.
Distribution of Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus).
Diana monkey (Cercopithecus diana)
Status: Inhabits rain forest in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, and the southern edge of Guinea. Two subspecies are recognized: C. d. diana west of the Sassandra river and C. d. roloway to the east. No comprehensive population survey has been made, but the Diana monkey appears to be one of the most vulnerable African primates. It is restricted to the wettest parts of the Upper Guinea forest zone; it is rare in degraded forest and is susceptible to hunting because of its relatively large body size, conspicuous coat pattern, loud vocalizations, and tendency to use the upper part of the forest canopy. Before the outbreak of the civil war in 1990, C. d. diana was still widespread in Liberia and relatively common in some areas of undisturbed forest with low hunting pressure. In Sierra Leone it was common at Tiwai Island, and it is also common in the large Taï National Park in western Côte d'Ivoire. C. d. roloway appears to be much more seriously threatened than C. d. diana; there are no recent reports of its status in eastern Côte d'Ivoire, and brief surveys in western Ghana have detected Roloway monkeys only in the contiguous Ankasa Reserve and Nini-Suhien National Park; more thorough surveys are urgently needed. Strictly protected areas of mature forest are needed to ensure the long-term survival of both subspecies.
Distribution of drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus).
Preuss's guenon (Cercopithecus preussi)
Status: This is a close relative of Cercopithecus lhoesti and C. solatus. It has a very restricted distribution in W. Cameroon, E. Nigeria and on the island of Bioko. It is most common in montane forest and rare in lowland forest. There has been no comprehensive population survey of Preuss's guenon, but it is believed to be seriously threatened over much of its range as a result of both habitat destruction (little montane forest now survives in the mainland part of its range) and hunting (it is semi-terrestrial and relatively large-bodied and therefore susceptible to human predation). The distinctiveness of the Bioko form (usually regarded as the subspecies C. p. insularis) requires clarification.
Distribution of Diana monkey (Cercopithecus diana).
Sun-tailed guenon (Cercopithecus solatus)
Status: This monkey was discovered in the Fôret des Abeilles, Gabon, by M. Harrison in 1984. It is a close relative of Cercopithecus lhoesti and C. preussi. Subsequent surveys by Harrison and Gautier-Hion et al. suggested that the sun-tailed guenon was restricted to an area of about 5,000 km2 in the Fôret des Abeilles, but in 1994 C. solatus was observed in southern parts of the Lopé Reserve, extending the speciesí known range about 2000 km2 to the west. This is particularly significant because Lopé is relatively well-protected, while the Fôret des Abeilles has been opened up to timber exploitation. Timber exploitation is associated with increased hunting around logging camps and, being semi-terrestrial, C. solatus is sensitive to ground snares, a common form of hunting around logging camps. In response to this threat the Gabonese government declared the sun-tailed guenon a totally protected species in 1994. It is now important to establish more precisely the western limit of their distribution and to monitor closely planned logging operation in the south of the Lopé Reserve.
Distribution of Preuss's guenon (Cercopithecus preussi).
Sclater's guenon (Cercopithecus sclateri)
Status: Sclater's guenon has been regarded as a subspecies of Cercopithecus erythrotis, but appears to be a good species. It was feared to be extinct until populations were found surviving in eastern Nigeria in 1988. It occurs only between the Niger and Cross Rivers, an area with a very dense human population where most of the natural forest has been destroyed. Small, scattered populations survive in some patches of swamp and riverine forest, and in a few villages where they are regarded as sacred animals. Except in the very few places where they are held sacred, Sclater's guenons are heavily hunted in spite of their small body size. Stringent protection of remaining populations is needed; one of these populations is in the Stubbs Creek Forest Reserve in Akwa Ibom State, where a conservation project designed particularly to protect this species has made little progress.
Distribution of sun-tailed guenon (Cercopithecus solatus).
White-throated or red-bellied guenon (Cercopithecus erythrogaster)
Status: Known only from southwestern Nigeria and southern Benin, where it is largely restricted to moist forest and the wettest parts of the dry forest zone. Natural forest is increasingly fragmented within the range of this species, which does not do well in very degraded forest. It is threatened not only because of its restricted range and the loss of its habitat, but also by hunting, which is intense in southern Nigeria. There is no reliable population estimate, but numbers must be declining. Two color phases are known; in one the venter is red, in the other grey. Red-bellied animals are definitely known only from Benin, where they have been observed in Lama Forest. Stringent habitat protection and hunting restrictions are needed, and further data on status and ecology are required.
Distribution of Sclater's guenon (Cercopithecus sclateri).
White-thighed black-and-white colobus (Colobus vellerosus)
Status: Historically, this colobus occurred in central and eastern Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin and western Nigeria. The human population in this region is dense and growing very rapidly; forest destruction and fragmentation have been extensive, and the hunting of wildlife uncontrolled in most places. There has been no systematic survey of C. vellerosus populations, but it is known to have become rare in several national parks in Ghana where it had been assumed to be secure. Conservation needs are for a thorough survey, and more rigorous protection of remaining populations.
Black colobus (Colobus satanas)
Status: Restricted to rain forest in Cameroon (south of the Sanaga River), Gabon, parts of Congo, and Equatorial Guinea (both mainland Rio Muni and the island of Bioko). Numbers are declining because of both hunting and habitat destruction; this species appears more sensitive to habitat disturbance than other members of the black-and-white colobus group and is rare or absent in secondary forests. However, a large population survives in Gabon's Lopé Reserve, where the population is estimated to be at least 50,000 monkeys. More information is needed on its status in Congo.
Distribution of white-throated or red-bellied guenon (Cercopithecus erythrogaster).
Red colobus (Procolobus badius)
Red colobus populations have a patchy distribution from Senegal to Zanzibar. Between 14 and 17 subspecies are recognized and several of these are so distinctive (e.g., Zanzibar red colobus) that some classifications regard them as full species. Few populations are secure and the following eight local forms are considered to be especially threatened:
Procolobus badius waldroni. Miss Waldron's red colobus is known only from eastern Côte d'Ivoire and western Ghana in high forest. None were seen during recent surveys of forests in Ghana, including Bia National Park, where it was formerly relatively common. Habitat destruction and hunting of forest wildlife have been intense within the range of this monkey and it appears to be on the verge of extinction.
Distribution of white-thighed black-and-white colobus (Colobus vellerosus).
Procolobus badius epieni. This form was discovered in 1993 in the central delta of the Niger in southern Nigeria. It is most similar to Pennantii of Bioko. There is no population estimate for the Niger Delta red colobus; its swamp forest habitat is coming under increasing pressure from oil extraction activities and logging, and it is also hunted for its meat. There is no protected area within its range; one needs to be established as a matter of urgency.
Procolobus badius pennantii. Pennant's red colobus is endemic to Bioko. Recent surveys have found it only in the southwestern part of the island, but it may also occur on Pico Basilé. It inhabits the most remote, primary forest and has been much affected by hunting and habitat loss. Probably fewer than 10,000 individuals survive. A rigorous protection program is needed.
Procolobus badius preussi. Preuss's red colobus has a very restricted range in the lowland evergreen forest of western Cameroon and possibly far southeastern Nigeria. The only confirmed population is in the Korup National Park, where the total number is probably in the range 10–15,000. Despite Korupís protected status, colobus are still hunted at a level exceeding sustainability.
Distribution of black colobus (Colobus satanas).
Procolobus badius bouvieri. Bouvier's red colobus is endemic to Congo. There is no recent information on its status. Reports of its occurrence in the Lefini Reserve may be incorrect. Surveys of its distribution and status are needed extremely urgently and immediate protection from hunting and other forms of disturbance is required.
Procolobus badius rufomitratus. The Tana River red colobus is confined to the remnant gallery forests of the lower Tana River in Kenya. Recent surveys indicate at least 86 groups occur in 34 forest patches. The total population is estimated at 1,100–1,300, down from an estimated 1,200–1,800 in 1975. About 40% of the population occurs within the Tana Primate National Reserve. All remaining forest patches inhabited by colobus are small and this, combined with the separation of the patches, makes the population highly vulnerable. The forest patches are seriously threatened by conversion to farmland, by burning, and by reduced river discharge and silt deposition resulting from several dams and irrigation projects up-river. Stringent habitat protection is required.
Procolobus badius kirkii. The Zanzibar red colobus is found only on Zanzibar Island off the Tanzania coast, where it only occurs at relatively high densities in and adjacent to the Jozani Forest Reserve in the south. The monkey lives in relatively large, multi-male groups in overlapping home ranges. An estimated 1,000–1,500 remain, and they are severely threatened by habitat destruction. No populations are currently protected effectively; Jozani Forest Reserve and other remaining areas of habitat require full legal and practical protection if this unique colobus is to be saved.
Distribution of the most threatened subspecies of the red colobus (Procolobus badius). 1 =waldroni; 2 =epieni; 3 =pennantii; 4 =preussi; 5 =bouvieri; 6 =rufomitratus; 7 =kirkii; 8 =gordonorum.
Procolobus badius gordonorum. The Uhehe red colobus is endemic to Tanzania where it has a scattered and very restricted distribution in forests in and around the Udzungwa (=Uzungwa) Mountains and Magombera Forest Reserve. It is extremely rare, and threatened by habitat loss and hunting, but there are no reliable estimates of its numbers. The largest population lives in the newly created Udzungwa National Park. Half of the tiny Magombera Forest has been totally destroyed by agricultural encroachment during the past 15 years, leaving only 6 km2 for wildlife; approximately 450 red colobus live in this forest patch. A full population survey and assessment of conservation requirements are needed.
Distribution of the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes).
Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)
Status: Chimpanzees are divided into three widely-recognized subspecies: eastern P. t. schweinfurthi between Tanzania and Zaire (north and east of the Zaire River), central P. t. troglodytes between Zaire and Nigeria, and western P. t. verus between Nigeria (or Togo) and Senegal. There is little survey data over much of this range, rendering population estimates crude. Approximately 8,000 eastern chimpanzees are estimated to occur outside Zaire (with ca. 5,000 in Uganda); Zaire may have 5,000+ and surveys are needed. Protection in Tanzania and Uganda at least is relatively good, though limited poaching has been reported and habitat loss to agriculture remains a perennial pressure. Central chimpanzees are the most numerous, with perhaps 80,000 found chiefly in Gabon and Congo. They are threatened by habitat loss and hunting for meat and traditional medicine. Finally, western P. t. verus are patchily distributed and may number no more than 12,000, with very few in protected areas; they are severely threatened by habitat loss, hunting, and (in the recent past) by biomedical trade; this subspecies is therefore severely threatened. The eastern range boundary of verus is unclear. Genetic evidence suggests that verus may have diverged from central and eastern chimpanzees some 1.6 million years ago; whether or not this merits taxonomic revision, from a conservation standpoint P. t. verus should probably be viewed as an independent evolutionary unit.
Distribution of the bonobo (Pan paniscus).
Bonobo (Pan paniscus)
Status: The bonobo has a discontinuous range in the Central Zaire Basin of Equatorial Africa, south of the Zaire and east of the Lomami Rivers. Although the extent of potential habitat is estimated to be approximately 840,000 km2 (using the historical eastern boundary—the Lualaba), the bonobo is thought to occur in only small isolated populations within this range. There are no substantive data concerning total numbers, and all estimates are speculative. However, because of the rapid decline in some study populations and the disappearance of bonobos from populations where they were once common, investigators estimate fewer than 25,000 and more likely 10,000 to 20,000. Only a few populations may be considered self-sustaining. Habitat destruction from commercial logging and agriculture, traditional slash-and-burn agriculture, and encroachment by growing human populations are the primary threats to the species. Bonobos are hunted in parts of their range for food, and in other parts local taboos against hunting are disintegrating due to changing cultural values associated with more transient human populations. Although the bonobo is protected by Zairean law, enforcement is negligible, and conservation efforts are hampered by sustained political and economic instability. The most urgent conservation requirement, therefore, is to establish parks and reserves in areas with viable bonobo populations and undegraded habitat. Surveys are also urgently needed to determine more fully the speciesí distribution and abundance. Conservation education programs are needed to help curb poaching and illegal trade. The bonobo breeds in captivity, and captive propagation programs exist for North American and European zoos. An Action Plan for Pan paniscus has been published (Thompson-Handler et al., 1995).
Distribution of the gorilla (Gorilla gorilla).
Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla)
Status: Gorillas occur in two regions of Africa, equatorial west Africa and east central Africa. Three subspecies are usually recognized: The western lowland gorilla (G. g. gorilla) still occurs in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and as a relict population in southeastern Nigeria; the eastern lowland gorilla (G. g. graueri) occurs in eastern Zaire; and the mountain gorilla (G. g. beringei) occurs in two populations in Rwanda, Uganda and Zaire. Precise counts come from only a few small populations, but recent calculations of estimated densities by area of suitable habitat indicate a stable population of about 600 G. g. beringei, all of them in National Parks; a declining population of at least 10,000 G. g. graueri, about half in National Parks; and more than 110,000 G. g. gorilla, less than 10% of which are in National Parks. G. g. gorilla's numbers are likely to crash within a century, until they occur only in conservation areas. Hunting, and forest clearance for agriculture and timber are the main threats, and they are increasing in intensity and extent.
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Pheasants. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan: 1995–1999. Compiled by Philip J.K. McGowan and Peter J. Garson on behalf of the WPA/BirdLife/SSC Pheasant Specialist Group, 1995, 116 pp.
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