Kytalyk Resource Reserve, or Zakaznik, (KRR) is located in the high arctic region of north-east of Russia. KRR is situated in the Yana-Indigraka lowland, between the Khroma and Indigirka rivers which drain into the Arctic Ocean to the north. The protected area borders the Laptev Sea to the north-west and the Siberian Sea to the north-east. The Polousny Mountains are situated to the south-west. The co-ordinates of the reserve are 70°46′–72°20′N, 143°35′–152°30′E.
Located within the Arctic Circle, the reserve is dominated by tundra: more specifically it falls into a “typical tundra subzone” (Chernov, 1988). This subzone is the most characteristic of the relatively uniform, treeless tundra landscapes, and consists of gently rolling relief, with stable vegetation cover on watersheds. River valleys, steep shorelines, lake basins and boggy depressions break up this monotony, as does the local presence of “polygonal” or “spotted” tundra, a feature which is caused by repeated freezing and melting. The landscape is interspersed with lakes and wetlands, while the north-east of the reserve encompasses the Indigirka River delta.
Trees and small bushes are absent on the watersheds, with the height of vegetation determined by the thickness of annual snow cover. Bryophytes are common with 10 species predominating. Sedges are abundant, forming the bulk of the herbaceous layer. Typical tundra may also comprise bushy willows, shrubs and dwarf shrubs (e.g. dwarf species of Salix, Dryas, Cassiope and Vaccinium). Cotton-grasses Eriophorum spp. and dicotyledonous herbs such as Saxifraga, Pyrola and Compostiae are also common.
The Yana-Indigirka lowland, within which the reserve is situated, is home to a population of approximately 130,000 wild reindeer Rangifer tarandus, primarily located on the western bank of the Indigirka River. It is also home to the largest mass moulting of geese in the Yakutia Region. Bean goose Anser fabalis and white-fronted goose Anser albifrons number up to 30,000 birds. Other important bird species in the area include spectacled eider Sommateria fischeri (VU), king eider Sommateria spectabilis and Ross's gull Rhodosthetica rosea.
The region, and particularly the Yana-Indriraka lowland, is the breeding ground of the Eastern Siberian population of the Siberian crane Grus leucogeranus (EN) –“Kytalyk” is the Yakutian name for the Siberian crane. Breeding grounds for the species are typically located in lowland tundra (moss-lichen tundra and sedge dominated wetlands), more rarely in the forest-tundra transitional zones and sometimes in the northernmost taiga (forest zone) between the Arctic Ocean and the uplands to the south. Considered a sacred bird by the Yakutians, the Siberian crane is the third rarest of all cranes. These birds are threatened by habitat loss through land drainage and reclamation, agricultural development and oil exploitation activities. The eastern population are believed to number 2,900–3,000, representing 99% of the world's total population. More than 800 cranes are believed to nest in the reserve.
The establishment of the reserve has been as a result of collaboration between the government of the Sakha Republic and WWF. Initially, in the early 1990s, two relatively small local zakazniks (resource reserves) were established to help conserve the crane populations. As a result of Government Decree No. 337, (of 12 August 1996), the reserve was established over 24,911km2. In January 1999, its area was extended by 8,852km2, and KRR is now one of the largest reserves within the Russian Arctic. The creation of the reserve in its present form is largely a result of biological research undertaken by Dr. Nikolai Germogenov, an ethnic Evenk familiar with the lifestyle of the indigenous communities of the area, and funded by WWF-Germany.
KRR is located in Allaikhovsky Ulus district in the north-east of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Russia. This district extends over 107,400km2, while Yakutia covers 3,103,200km2, approximately 18.2% of the Russian Federation. Three communities of Even people inhabit the reserve, a native people who traditionally engage in reindeer herding and husbandry, fishing and hunting. These communities have been actively involved in the establishment of the reserve.
49 indigenous peoples and ethnic groups have been identified in Russia (Murashko, 1998), of which the Even are one. In the 17th century, the Russians referred to this group as the Lamuts: the Even word “lamu” means sea or lake. Originally believed to be a subgroup of the Evenk, the Even (the reindeer people) are descendents from a mixture of Tungas and Yakagir cultures. Tungas nomads (in the Yakut language tongus), is a general name that covers a great number of native tribes that populated central and eastern Siberia from the Pacific shore, deep into inner Asia. By the 18th century a splinter group of these people, the “Lamut Yakagirs”, began to migrate towards the Sea of Okhotsk. This group eventually became known as the Evens, while those left behind were identified as the Evenk.
The Even inhabit a huge territory in north-eastern Siberia, extending east of the Lena river to the Sea of Okhotsk, and to the Arctic Ocean in the north. Populations live in several specific areas in this part of Russia, including a large territory in the Khabarovsk district, the Magadan region, the northern part of Yakutia, the Chukchi and the Kamchatka Peninsula. The group's formation and wide distribution is believed to be connected to their constant migration over the centuries. Moving north and east, the Even have assimilated and been influenced by a number of different cultures including the Koryaks (Kamchatka), Chukchi (Chukchi Peninsula), Yukaghir (Kolyma River basin) and Yakuts. The group has a designated national district in Yakutia, the Even- Bytantai.
The people have several self-designations, of which the best known is Even; in 1930 this became their official designation. Some groups, however, call themselves oven or orochel “the reindeer people”.
The Even are believed to belong to the Baikail (Paleo-Siberian) group of peoples, similar to that of the Evenk. The Even are however smaller and have a lighter skin tone than the Evenk. The populations of both groups have declined over the centuries, due to pressure from ethnic Russians. They have tried to maintain the Tungus culture (nomadic existence), but not always with success.
Over the past 300 years, state policy pertaining to indigenous peoples of Russia has undergone major changes. It has altered from a policy of non-interference and respect for the traditional way of life of native groups, to attempts at total integration and modernisation of their lives. In particular, following the Russian Revolution in 1917, dramatic changes occurred in the nomadic lives of the indigenous peoples of the Soviet Union, such as the Evens. During the early years of Soviet rule, the Even were forced to form tribal councils and executive committees to govern their affairs. Soviet ideology was introduced and explained by propaganda centres known as “Red tents”. Forced collectivisation began in 1929, in north-eastern Siberia. Collectivisation of the Even on the coast of the Okhotsk Sea was completed by 1936, bringing about unprecedented changes in the distribution of the people. New dwellings and schools of Russian style were built in village centres, and new methods of agriculture were introduced (cattle rearing and land cultivation). However many Even and Evenk communities resisted, by destroying their herds and fleeing their territories.
Pressure on the Even increased after the discovery of gold in the region in 1931–1932. Ethnic Russians used many of the indigenous inhabitants as cheap labour and requisitioned their reindeer for transport. The entire valley of the Kolyma River was transformed into a zone of gold-mining, logging and prison camps. Further changes were brought about by the relocation of Soviet industry east of the Ural Mountains, preand post-World War II. State-run mines and industrial zones covered many traditional hunting and grazing areas and caused widespread environmental destruction. A further influx of ethnic Russians placed pressures on local communities, who were susceptible to introduced disease. Many Even communities dispersed still further north to avoid contact with the Russians. As a result, Even culture has been badly damaged, according to the “Association of Native People of Chukotka and Kolyma”.
The Even language is one of the northern group of the Manchu-Tungus languages, a group which also includes the Evenk and Negidal languages. It has much in common with the Evenk language, which itself shares similarities with Mongolian and Turkic languages. Often considered a dialect of the Evenk language, Even differs from it in terms of phonetics and vocabulary. Even itself is divided into two main dialects (eastern and western), as well other minor dialects such as the “Arman”. The written version of Even is based on the eastern, Oli dialect.
Despite the publication of a number of comprehensive works in the Even language (the first book were published in 1932), its use remains relatively limited. It is particularly difficult to implement in schools, due to the mixed nationalities of pupils. According to the 1959 census, 81.4% of the Evens were native speakers, but by 1979 this had dropped to 56.9%. In 1979, 71.8% of the Even population spoke Russian fluently, and 19.9% considered it to be their mother tongue. Of the approximately 10,500 Even who live in Yakutia (1996 estimate), some 70% speak the Yakut language and only 35% speak their own language. In such a situation, the opportunities for sustaining or developing ethnic culture are limited.
Recent changes in Russia have affected the Even. Thus a law on “The legal status of the minor indigenous peoples of Russia” was adopted by the State Duma in 1992. However it has not yet been accepted by the Federation or the President. Articles within the “Land Code”, “Law of the Russian Federation about environmental protection”, “Law on protected territories” and “Principles of Forest Legislation” include special rights for indigenous peoples regarding the exploitation of natural resources. In 1991, the republics of Buriatia, Sakha (Yakutia) and Karelia, as well as the autonomous areas of Koryakskiy and Khanty-Mansiyskiy, adopted their own legislation regulating the rights of indigenous peoples and the utilisation of natural resources.
Over the past decade, too, the indigenous peoples of Russia have begun to mobilise themselves into a political force. Following the 1990 Congress of Northern Ethnic Minorities (in which there were 16 Even among a total of 341 delegates), several public organisations of peoples of the north have been established. These include the Association of the Peoples of the North (APN), set up in 1990, the Deputy Assembly of minorities of the North, Siberia and the Far East (1991) and the International League of Minorities and Ethnic Groups (1991).
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the political reforms that resulted, there have been big changes in Russian environmental and protected area policy and law. The basic legislation currently governing protected area organisation, protection and use is the “1995 Federal Law on Specially Protected Areas” (SCEP, 1997). Through this law, protected areas are defined as objects of national wealth, and designated into the following main categories:
Zapovedniks (strict reserves)
National Parks
Zakazniks (reserves)
Natural monuments
Under this law, strict reserves (zapovedniks), are defined as “nature-protection, research and eco-educational institutions designed for the preservation and investigation of nature processes and phenomena, the gene pool of plants and animals, certain species and communities of plants and animals, typical and unique ecological systems”. National Parks are defined as “nature conservation, eco-educational and research institutions whose terrestrial and water areas include nature complexes and features of particular ecological and historical and aesthetic value and designed for the use for nature conservation, research and educational purposes and also for regulated tourism”. The principal objective of zakazniks is the long-term preservation and protection of habitats of especially valuable game in order to enrich the fauna of adjacent lands. They may have federal or regional significance. Natural monuments are for the protection of individual natural features.
Until very recently, the management of the majority of Russia's most strictly protected areas (zapovedniks) was the responsibility of the Russian Federation State Committee on the Environment (RFSCEP), or Goscomecologyia12. However, other bodies such as the State Committee on Forestry (Forest Service) or Rosleshoz, the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS) and the Ministry of Education have jurisdiction over some areas. National parks are generally under the jurisdiction of the Forest Service, while most federal zakazniks are managed by the Department on Protection and Rational Use of Hunting Resources, under the Ministry of Agriculture (SCEP, 1997).
Sakha (Yakutia) is a Presidential republic with its own constitution. It was first granted the status of an autonomous republic in 1922, and currently has a bicameral legislative system. There are 16 ministries and eight national committees, including a Ministry of Nature Protection (Argounova, 1994). The exact role and responsibilities of this ministry in relation to the establishment of protected areas is unclear.
Indigenous communities are often extremely cautious about the establishment of new protected areas, mainly for fear of additional inspections that would interfere with, and disturb their traditional lifestyles. KRR is considered unique in that the three groups of Even reindeer breeders that inhabit the area were involved in its establishment. Six specific management zones have been established, which offer varying degrees of nature protection to exist alongside specified traditional activities of the Even. These zones are:
Zone 1: Seasonal zone: available to the indigenous population for hunting in the winter. Huts in the zone contain fishing nets and traps. In summer the area is closed to human access. It functions as a zone of absolute protection for the nesting of Siberian crane.
Zone 2: Established as a zone of traditional nature use for territories with lower concentrations of Siberian crane nests. Reindeer hunting and breeding, grass collection and eco-tourism are permitted. However, hunting for waterfowl and entry by people who do not conduct traditional nature use activities, are prohibited.
Zone 3: Sacred land zone, which protects the world famous “Berelyakh” mammoth cemetery. Following earlier damage to the site by tourists and merchants, the indigenous communities of the area specifically requested this protection.
Zone 4: A zone for licensed hunting for wild reindeer. The area is located within the traditional hunting areas of one of the three Even communities.
Zone 5: A small zone for licensed fishing.
Zone 6: Includes coastal sites of the Eastern-Siberian Sea, including the Indigirka River delta. This zone is reserved for protection but may be further divided into new zones with different protection regimes following closer study.
Development activities, such as exploration and exploitation of minerals and infrastructure construction, are prohibited throughout the reserve.
The establishment of KRR has involved leaders from the local tribal communities and the district administration. The support of Mr Semyon Rozhin (Head of Administration of the Allaikhovsky Ullus) was a particularly important factor. Dr Nikolai Germogenov (see above) has been an active participant in the establishment of this reserve following extensive personal biological research in the area. More specifically he has been the project leader on behalf of WWF. The promotion of nature conservation work at local meetings has been an important part of this project.
The reserve's activities are determined by a Trustee Co-ordinating Council, formed in 1997, which consists of representatives from the reserve administration, indigenous communities, the Yakutian Ministry for Nature Protection, and scientific and nature conservation organisations. Representatives of each of the three Even tribal communities are included in the reserve's protection service (ranger service). While offering employment opportunities, this also provides a valuable communication link between park authorities and the local indigenous groups.
As a result of the establishment of specific management zones within the reserve, the Even communities inhabiting the area appear to obtain many benefits from the protected area. These include preserving valuable ecosystems and their associated wildlife, as well as ensuring the development and preservation of traditional cultural practices and other ecologically safe forms of natural resource use.
During the early part of their history, the Even hunted moose, wild reindeer, musk deer, mountain sheep and bear. Dogs were often used for hunting (known as Lamut dogs in Kamchatka), with their favourite technique being the driving hunt. Essentially a nomadic people, the Even's economy was traditionally based on hunting and rearing of wild reindeer. Later they began to domesticate the reindeer. As a result, they – and the Evenk – differ from many other hunting peoples of Siberia and the Far East in that they are both hunters and reindeer herders.
Indeed, reindeer hunting and breeding has for long been central to the group's existence. The annual reindeer migration was the main event of Even life, with the species (the same as the North American caribou) moving north to higher, cooler altitudes in the summer to avoid insects and then migrating towards greater tree cover and adequate food supplies in winter. The Even followed the reindeer, and their entire culture was built around the nomadic lifestyle, living in temporary (urikit) or permanent (meneen) camps, as well as in light, portable, conical tents (chums) during the hunt.
Reindeer played an integral role in the lives of the Even, providing hides for clothing and house coverings; hair, bones, and antler for the manufacture of tools, ornaments and works of art; sinew and tendons for ropes, cordage, and thread; the means of nonpedestrian transport; and as central figures in ritual and ceremony. The use of reindeer as baggage-carrying and riding animals by the Even is unique among indigenous groups of the region. Reindeer were only used for this purpose when migrating to a new place. The animals grazed freely but were milked by the Even.
While most Even communities were nomadic, there were also some more sedentary groups, with reindeer pastures in the river basins of the Kolyma, Omolon and Indigirka. In these locations, fishing was an additional summer occupation. Groups of Even inhabiting areas close to the Okhotsk Sea did not breed reindeer, but were fishermen and hunted sea mammals. Such communities used dogs as draught animals.
Traditionally, the Even, like the Evenk, hold a number of spiritual beliefs such as totemism, which involves the animation of natural phenomena and concepts of the soul. Magic rites were associated with this belief, relating to the hunting or guarding of reindeer herds. Over time, such rites came to be administered by shamans. Shamanism has been considered as the faith of the Even. Indeed the word “shaman” originates from the Evenk language, and is used to describe a religious specialist from the Siberian region. The magic rites of totemism were further developed through shamanism, which invoked guardian spirits to see off the spirits of the deceased, to dedicate reindeer, and spiritually to purge the hunters. Elements of the bear cult may also have influenced the faith, including the dressing of the carcass of the bear, consumption of its meat and burial of its head and bones.
Shamanism is not a single, unified religion but a cross-cultural form of religious sensibility and practice. Many current interpretations emphasise the healing side of shamanism, but this is only one aspect of the shaman's work. Among other things, shamanism is a hunter's religion, concerned with the necessity of taking life in order to survive. The shamanic view is based on the idea of paying for the souls of the animals one needs to eat.
Following the Evens first encounter with the Russians in the 1600s, the Russian Orthodox Church strove to convert them to the Christian Faith. According to the 1987 National Census data, a significant proportion of all Even were recorded as Orthodox Christians. However it is unclear how accurate this figure is, as some records state that Christianity has only been accepted nominally, with conversions remaining relatively superficial.
As noted above, KRR has a specific “Sacred land” zone, the site of “Berelyakh” mammoth cemetery, which was formerly plundered by merchants and tourists.
It would appear that the establishment of KRR is a good example of successful collaboration between government and protected area authorities, an international NGO (WWF) and an indigenous peoples group. While the project has been successful so far, the establishment of the reserve is still in its early stages. A continued commitment to collaboration will be needed to ensure that effective management continues, satisfying both the Even's cultural and economic needs and the area's wider nature conservation requirements.
Russia and its outlying republics continue to undergo major political, economic and social change. In many parts of the country the development and exploitation of natural resources such as oil and gas continue rapidly and with minimal environmental and other restraints. In the face of such pressures, the creation of protected areas to preserve valuable habitats and ecosystems, endangered wildlife populations and traditional native cultures is vital. Collaboration between government departments responsible for the designation of protected areas and other relevant parties, notably indigenous communities, should continue to be encouraged and developed: KRR provides a model of how such a relationship can be developed.
Argounova, T. (1994). Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge. Website: http://www.spiri.cam.ac.uk/rfn/sakha.htm.
Chernov, Y.I. (1988). The Living Tundra. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. no. 213pp.
Murashko, O. (1998). Indigenous Peoples and Conservation of their Environment in Russia. IWGIA, Moscow. no. 12pp.
State Committee of Russian Federation for Environment Protection. (1997). First National Report of the Russian Federation: Biodiversity Conservation in the Russian Federation. State Committee of Russian Federation for Environment Protection, Moscow. no. 170pp.
11Case study prepared by G.Smith, UNEP-WCMC
12Under a decree of Russian President V. Putin, no. 867, dated 17 May 2000, "On the Structure of Federal Bodies of Power", the State Committee for Environment Protection, ceased to exist. Simultaneously, the Federal Forestry Service, responsible for the protection of Russian forests, was also abolished. The authority of the abolished committees was transferred to the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation (MNR), which licenses development of Russia's oil, natural gas and other deposits. Responsibility for the overall management of protected areas is unclear at present.